200 LEVEL PROGRAMMES

200 LEVEL FIRST SEMESTER

Course Code Course Title Unit Status LH PH
ENT 211 Entrepreneurship and Innovation 2 C 15 45
COM 201 Introduction to Medical Sociology 2 C 30 -
PIO 201 Introductory Physiology & Blood 2 C 30 -
PIO 203 Physiology of Excitable Tissues 2 C 30 -
ANA 215 Histology of Basic Tissues 1 C - 45
PIO 211 Principles of Exercise Physiology 2 C 30 -
ANA 203 General and Systemic Embryology 2 C 30 -
BCH 201 General Biochemistry I 2 C 30 -
BCH 203 General Biochemistry Practical I 1 C - 45
Total 16

200 LEVEL SECOND SEMESTER

Course Code Course Title Unit Status LH PH
Philosophy, Logic and Human
GST 212 2 C 30 -
Existence
GST 212 Contemporary Health Issues 2 C 30 -
PIO 212 Renal & Body fluids Physiology 2 C 30 -
Introduction to Cardiovascular &
PIO 214 3 C 45 -
Respiratory Physiology
PIO 216 Gastrointestinal Physiology 2 C 30 -
PIO 214 Integrative Physiology 2 C 30 -
Anatomy of Thorax, Abdomen,
ANA 204 3 C 30 45
Pelvis & Perineum
Introduction to Laboratory
PIO 218 1 C - 45
Physiology I
BCH 202 General Biochemistry II 2 C 30 -
BIO 208 Biostatistics 2 C 30 -
Total 21

200 level courses

Courses to be taught at this level should include basic medical sciences courses in Physiology, Anatomy,
Biochemistry as well as Biostatistics, Entrepreneurial and General Studies.
ENT 211: Entrepreneurship and Innovation (2 Units C: LH 30)
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, students should be able to:
1. explain the concepts and theories of entrepreneurship, intrapreneurship, opportunity seeking, new value creation,
and risk taking;
2. state the characteristics of an entrepreneur; analyze the importance of micro and small businesses in wealth
creation, employment, and financial independence;
3. engage in entrepreneurial thinking;
4. identify key elements in innovation;
5. describe stages in enterprise formation, partnership and networking including business planning;
6. describe contemporary entrepreneurial issues in Nigeria, Africa and the rest of the world; and
7. state the basic principles of e-commerce.
Course Contents
Concept of entrepreneurship (entrepreneurship, intrapreneurship/corporate entrepreneurship), theories, rationale and
relevance of entrepreneurship (schumpeterian and other perspectives, risk-taking, necessity and opportunity-based
entrepreneurship and creative destruction), characteristics of entrepreneurs (opportunity seeker, risk taker, natural
and nurtured, problem solver and change agent, innovator and creative thinker), entrepreneurial thinking (critical
thinking, reflective thinking, and creative thinking), innovation (concept of innovation, dimensions of innovation,
change and innovation,
knowledge and innovation), enterprise formation, partnership and networking (basics of business plan, forms of
business ownership, business registration and forming alliances and join ventures), contemporary entrepreneurship
issues (knowledge, skills and technology, intellectual property, virtual office, networking), entrepreneurship in
Nigeria (biographies of inspirational entrepreneurs, youth and women entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship support
institutions, youth enterprise networks and environmental and cultural barriers to entrepreneurship)and basic
principles of e-commerce.
GST 212: Philosophy, Logic and Human Existence (2 Units C: LH 30)
Learning Outcomes
A student who has successfully gone through this course should be able to:
1. identify the basic features of philosophy as an academic discipline;
2. identify the main branches of philosophy & the centrality of logic in philosophical discourse;
3. describe the elementary rules of reasoning;
4. distinguish between valid and invalid arguments;
5. think critically and assess arguments in texts, conversations and day-to-day discussions;
6. critically asses the rationality or otherwise of human conduct under different existential conditions;
7. develop the capacity to extrapolate and deploy expertise in logic to other areas of knowledge, and
8. guide his or her actions, using the knowledge and expertise acquired in philosophy and logic.
Course Contents
Scope of philosophy; notions, meanings, branches and problems of philosophy. Logic as an indispensable tool of
philosophy. Elements of syllogism, symbolic logic— the first nine rules of inference. Informal fallacies, laws of
thought, nature of arguments. Valid and invalid arguments, logic of form and logic of content — deduction,
induction and inferences. Creative and critical thinking. Impact of philosophy on human existence. Philosophy and
politics, philosophy and human conduct, philosophy and religion, philosophy and human values, philosophy and
character molding, etc.
COM 201: Introduction to Medical Sociology (2 Units C: LH 30)
Learning Outcome
1. Understanding of the social determinants of health: Students will learn about how social factors, such as
poverty, race, and gender, impact health outcomes and access to healthcare.
2. Knowledge of the social construction of illness: Students will gain an understanding of how medical concepts,
such as diseases, are shaped by social and cultural forces.
3. Understanding of the healthcare system: Students will learn about the organization, financing, and delivery of
healthcare services and the role of healthcare professionals in society.
4. Knowledge of health disparities: Students will learn about the unequal distribution of health and healthcare
resources, and the impact of these disparities on different populations.
5. Understanding of the sociology of health behaviors: Students will learn about how social factors, such as
culture, education, and social networks, influence health behaviors and decision-making.
6. Knowledge of the impact of technology on healthcare: Students will learn about the role of technology in
healthcare, including advances in medical research and treatment, and the implications of these advancements
for patients and healthcare providers.
7. Development of critical thinking skills: Students will be encouraged to analyze and critique the social and
political factors that influence health and healthcare policies
Course content
The Sociology of Health and Illness: This topic introduces students to the basic concepts and theories in medical
sociology, including the social construction of illness and the social determinants of health.
The Healthcare System: This topic covers the organization and financing of healthcare services, the role of
healthcare professionals, and the impact of healthcare policies on patients and communities.
Health Disparities: This topic explores the unequal distribution of health and healthcare resources, including the
impact of race, class, and gender on access to care and health outcomes.
Health Behaviors: This topic examines the social and cultural factors that influence health behaviors, such as
smoking, diet, and physical activity, as well as the role of social networks and social support in health decision-
making.
The Sociology of Medical Research and Technology: This topic covers the impact of technology on healthcare,
including the use of technology in medical research, the introduction of new treatments, and the implications of
these advancements for patients and healthcare providers.
The Political Economy of Healthcare: This topic explores the political and economic forces that shape healthcare
policies and influence the distribution of healthcare resources.
Global Health: This topic examines global health disparities and the impact of globalization on health and
healthcare.
Ethical and Legal Issues in Healthcare: This topic covers ethical and legal considerations in healthcare, including
patient rights, medical confidentiality, and access to care.
PIO 211: Principle of Exercise Physiology (2 units, C: LH 30)
Learning Objectives:
1. Define key terms and concepts related to exercise physiology, including aerobic capacity, anaerobic threshold,
VO2 max, and lactate threshold.
2. Describe the acute physiological responses to exercise, including changes in heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac
output, ventilation, and metabolic rate.
3. Explain the adaptations of the cardiovascular system to chronic exercise training, including improvements in
cardiac function, blood flow regulation, and vascular health.
4. Identify the neuromuscular adaptations to resistance training, including muscle hypertrophy, strength gains, and
neuromuscular coordination.
5. Discuss the metabolic responses to exercise, including energy production pathways (aerobic vs. anaerobic
metabolism) and substrate utilization (carbohydrate vs. fat oxidation).
6. Analyze the role of nutrition, hydration, and electrolyte balance in optimizing exercise performance and
recovery.
7. Evaluate the effects of environmental factors such as altitude, temperature, and humidity on exercise
performance and thermoregulation.
8. Apply the principles of exercise prescription to design safe and effective training programs for individuals with
diverse fitness goals and needs.
9. Interpret scientific literature and research findings in exercise physiology, critically evaluating study design,
methodology, and implications for practice.

Course content
1. Introduction to Exercise Physiology:
Definition of exercise physiology
Historical perspectives and development of the field
Importance of exercise physiology in health, fitness, and performance
2. Energy Systems and Metabolism:
Overview of energy metabolism
ATP production and utilization
Anaerobic and aerobic energy systems
Substrates for energy production (carbohydrates, fats, proteins)
3. Cardiorespiratory Function:
Anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system
Pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange
Regulation of heart rate and blood pressure during exercise
Oxygen transport and utilization
4. Neuromuscular Function:
Neuromuscular anatomy and physiology
Motor unit recruitment and muscle fiber types
Neuromuscular adaptations to exercise
Neural control of movement and coordination
5. Endocrine Responses to Exercise:
Hormonal regulation of metabolism and energy balance
 Role of hormones (e.g., cortisol, insulin, growth hormone) in exercise adaptation
Endocrine responses to acute and chronic exercise
6. Temperature Regulation and Fluid Balance:
Thermoregulation during exercise
Heat production and dissipation mechanisms
Fluid and electrolyte balance during exercise
Strategies for hydration and heat stress management
7. Exercise and Immune Function:
Effects of exercise on immune function
Relationship between exercise intensity, duration, and immune response
Immunological considerations for athletes and physically active individuals
8. Exercise Prescription and Training Principles:
Principles of exercise prescription (frequency, intensity, duration, type)
Adaptations to aerobic and anaerobic training
Periodization and training program design
Considerations for special populations (e.g., children, older adults, individuals with chronic diseases)
9. Measurement and Assessment in Exercise Physiology:
Laboratory techniques for assessing physiological variables (e.g., VO2 max, lactate threshold)
Field tests and assessments of physical fitness
Interpretation of exercise testing results
10. Environmental and Altitude Physiology:
Effects of environmental factors (e.g., temperature, altitude, humidity) on exercise performance
Adaptations to training at altitude
Physiological responses to extreme environments
11. Exercise and Health Promotion:
Role of exercise in disease prevention and management
Benefits of regular physical activity for health and well-being
Exercise recommendations for various populations (e.g., sedentary individuals, athletes, older adults)

GST 212: Contemporary Health Issues (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning outcomes
On completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. Understanding of current and emerging health issues: Students will gain an understanding of the most pressing
health problems and challenges facing society, such as chronic diseases, mental health, and infectious diseases.
2. Knowledge of the social and cultural context of health: Students will learn about the impact of social and
cultural factors, such as poverty, race, and gender, on health outcomes and access to healthcare.
3. Awareness of health disparities: Students will learn about the unequal distribution of health and healthcare
resources and the impact of these disparities on different populations.
4. Knowledge of the impact of technology on healthcare: Students will learn about the role of technology in
healthcare, including advances in medical research and treatment, and the implications of these advancements
for patients and healthcare providers.
5. Understanding of the political and economic factors affecting health: Students will learn about the political and
economic forces that shape healthcare policies and influence the distribution of healthcare resources.
6. Knowledge of global health issues: Students will learn about global health disparities and the impact of
globalization on health and healthcare.
7. Awareness of ethical and legal issues in healthcare: Students will learn about ethical and legal considerations in
healthcare, including patient rights, medical confidentiality, and access to care
Course contents
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs): This includes diseases such as heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, and
chronic respiratory diseases. The course could cover the causes, risk factors, and prevention of NCDs.
Mental Health: This section could explore various mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, and
substance abuse, and the impact they have on individuals and society.
Global Health: The course could discuss global health challenges such as pandemics, infectious diseases, and health
disparities between different regions and countries.
Environmental Health: This section could address issues such as air and water pollution, exposure to toxic
substances, and the impact of climate change on health.
Nutrition and Physical Activity: The course could explore the impact of diet and physical activity on health and the
role of lifestyle changes in the prevention and management of chronic diseases.
Healthcare Systems and Access to Care: This section could examine the various healthcare systems around the
world and the challenges of access to care for certain populations.
Health Promotion and Disease Prevention: The course could address strategies for promoting healthy behaviors and
preventing disease, including vaccination programs and public health campaigns.
Emerging Health Technologies: This section could discuss advances in medical technology and the impact they have
on patient care, such as telemedicine, personalized medicine, and artificial intelligence.
Ethics in Healthcare: The course could cover ethical issues related to healthcare, such as informed consent,
confidentiality, and end-of-life care.
Healthcare Policy and Reform: The course could analyze current healthcare policies and reforms and their impact on
access to care, quality of care, and overall health outcomes.
ANA 215: Histology of Basic Tissues (2 units, Compulsory: LH 30; PH 45)
Learning Objectives:
1. Identify and classify different types of epithelial tissues based on their structural characteristics and functional
properties.
2. Describe the cellular organization, fiber composition, and ground substance of various types of connective
tissues.
3. Distinguish between different types of muscle tissues (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac) based on their
morphological features and contractile properties.
4. Recognize the histological features of nervous tissues, including neurons, neuroglia, and nerve fibers.
5. Explain the structural adaptations of epithelial tissues for specialized functions such as protection, absorption,
and secretion.
6. Discuss the structural diversity of connective tissues and their roles in providing support, protection, and
metabolic support to other tissues.
7. Analyze the histological changes associated with tissue repair, inflammation, and fibrosis in response to injury
or disease.
8. Apply histological knowledge to interpret tissue pathology and diagnose histopathological conditions.
9. Demonstrate proficiency in histological techniques, including tissue fixation, sectioning, staining, and
microscopy, to prepare and analyze tissue samples.
Course Content
Introduction to histology; Method of study in histology; Cell Membrane, Cellular organelles; Cell dynamics and cell
cycle. Cytogenetics. Histochemistry and cytochemistry. Introduction to recombinant DNA; In situ hybridization
histochemistry. Cell dynamics and cycle. Basic tissues of the body, the epithelial, connective tissues, muscle and
nervous tissue. The microanatomy of the four basic tissues, namely: epithelial tissue, including glandular tissue,
connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. Covering and Lining Epithelia. Glandular Epithelia.
Connective tissue. Bone, Bone formation and Joints. Blood. Muscle. Nervous tissue (PNS). Nervous tissue (CNS).
Cardiovascular system. Respiratory system. Integumentary system. Liver, Gallbladder and Pancreas. Gastro-
intestinal system. Lymphatic tissue and the Immune system. Endocrine system. Urinary system. Female
reproductive system. Male reproductive system. Eye.
PIO 214: Integrative Physiology (2 units, Compulsory: LH 30; PH )
Learning Objectives:
1. Describe the structure and function of major organ systems, including the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular,
respiratory, gastrointestinal, renal, and immune systems.
2. Explain the mechanisms of homeostatic regulation for key physiological variables, including temperature, blood
pressure, pH, osmolarity, and oxygenation.
3. Analyze the integration of neural, hormonal, and local signaling pathways in coordinating physiological
responses to stimuli such as exercise, stress, and nutrient intake.
4. Discuss the physiological adaptations to chronic stress, including the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system activation.
5. Evaluate the impact of lifestyle factors (e.g., diet, exercise, sleep) and environmental stressors (e.g., temperature
extremes, altitude, pollution) on integrative physiology.
6. Identify common pathophysiological conditions resulting from disruptions in integrative physiology, such as
hypertension, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune disorders.
7. Interpret experimental data and scientific literature related to integrative physiology, including studies using
animal models, clinical trials, and epidemiological research.
8. Synthesize information from multiple sources to develop holistic approaches to health promotion, disease
prevention, and therapeutic interventions.
9. Apply integrative physiological concepts to analyze and solve complex problems in clinical, research, and
public health settings.

Course Content
1. Introduction to Integrative Physiology:
Overview of physiological systems and their interconnections.
Basic principles of homeostasis and regulatory mechanisms.
Importance of integrative physiology in understanding organismal function.
2. Neurophysiology and Endocrine Integration:
Neural control of physiological processes, including sensory perception, motor control, and autonomic
regulation.
Hormonal regulation by the endocrine system and its role in coordinating systemic responses.
Integration of neural and endocrine signaling pathways in physiological regulation.
3. Cardiovascular Physiology:
Structure and function of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
Regulation of cardiac output, blood pressure, and tissue perfusion.
Integration of cardiovascular responses to exercise, stress, and hemodynamic challenges.
4. Respiratory Physiology:
Mechanics of ventilation, gas exchange, and pulmonary circulation.
Regulation of respiratory rate, depth, and gas transport.
Integration of respiratory responses to metabolic demands, altitude, and environmental factors.
5. Renal Physiology:
Renal anatomy and nephron function in fluid and electrolyte balance.
Regulation of renal blood flow, glomerular filtration, and tubular reabsorption.
Integration of renal responses to hydration status, blood pressure, and acid-base balance.
6. Gastrointestinal Physiology:
Digestive processes, including ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination.
Regulation of gastrointestinal motility, secretion, and nutrient metabolism.
Integration of digestive responses to dietary intake, hormonal signals, and neural input.
7. Endocrine Physiology:
Hormonal regulation of metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress responses.
Endocrine glands, hormones, and target tissues.
Integration of endocrine signaling pathways in physiological adaptation and homeostasis.
8. Immune and Inflammatory Physiology:
Structure and function of the immune system, including innate and adaptive immunity.
Immunological responses to infection, injury, and autoimmune disorders.
Integration of immune and inflammatory responses with other physiological systems.
9. Integrative Physiology in Health and Disease:
Physiological adaptations to exercise, aging, and environmental stressors.
Pathophysiology of common diseases and disorders affecting physiological systems.
Therapeutic interventions and medical treatments targeting integrative physiological processes.
10. Research in Integrative Physiology:
Techniques and methodologies used in integrative physiological research.
Critical analysis of scientific literature and experimental findings.
Application of integrative physiology principles to solve real-world problems and advance scientific
knowledge.

PIO 201: Introductory Physiology and Blood (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. describe the composition of a cell membrane;
2. explain how a potential difference across a membrane will influence the distribution of a cation and an anion;
3. describe how transport rates of certain molecules and ions are accelerated by specific membrane transport
proteins;
4. distinguish between active (primary and secondary) transport, facilitated diffusion, and passive diffusion based on
energy source and carrier protein involvement;
5. Identify the mechanisms and role of selective transporters for amino acids, neurotransmitters, nutrients, etc.;
6. Understand the general concepts of homeostasis and the principles of positive and negative feedback in
physiological systems;
7. Identify the site of erythropoietin production, the stimulus for its release, and the target tissue for erythropoietin
action;
8. Discuss the normal balance of red blood cell synthesis and destruction, including how imbalances in each lead to
anemia or polycythemia;
9. List and differentiate the various types of leukocytes;
10. Describe the role of thrombocytes in haemostasis; and
11. List clotting factors and discuss the mechanism of anti-coagulants.
Course Contents
Introduction and history of physiology. Structure and functions of cell membranes. Transport process. Special
transport mechanism in amphibian bladder, kidney, gall bladder, intestine, astrocytes and exocrine glands.
Biophysical principles. Homeostasis and control systems including temperature regulation. Biological rhythms.
Composition and functions of blood.
Haemopoiesis. WBC and differential count. Plasma proteins Coagulation, fibrinolysis and platelet functions. Blood
groups –ABO system – Rh system. Blood transfusion – indication for
collection and storage of blood, hazards of blood transfusions. Reticulo- endothelial system.
Immunity and immunodeficiency disease and HIV.

PIO 203: Physiology of Excitable Tissues (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning outcomes
On completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. list the steps in excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle;
2. describe the structure of the neuromuscular junction;
3. list some intracellular factors that can cause muscle fatigue;
4. describe the distinguishing characteristics of multi-unit and unitary smooth muscles;
5. explain the steps in the excitation-contraction coupling mechanism in cardiac muscle and compare with skeletal
muscle including different mechanisms for sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release;
6. explain how the resting membrane potential is generated
7. State the Nernst equation, and indicate how this equation accounts for both the chemical and electrical driving
forces that act on an ion;
8. Discuss the mechanisms by which an action potential is propagated along both non-myelinated and myelinated
axons;
9. Describe the principle of the voltage clamp and how it is used to identify the ionic selectivity of channels; and
10. Discuss the disorders that can occur at the neuromuscular junction.
Course Contents
Structure and functions of nerves, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and skeletal muscle, Muscles: structure,
excitation, theories of excitation-contraction. Membrane potentials. Nerve generation and conduction of impulse and
its physiological properties. Synapses and synaptic transmission.

PIO 212: Renal and Body Fluids Physiology (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this course, the student should be able to;
1. Sketch a cross section of a kidney; identify the renal cortex, renal medulla, renal calycies, medullary pyramids,
renal pelvic space, renal artery, renal vein, and ureter;
2. Describe renal blood flow, renal plasma flow, glomerular filtration rate, and filtration
fraction and list typical values;
3. Explain the concept of renal clearance. Use the clearance equation and an appropriate compound to estimate the
glomerular filtration rate, renal plasma flow, and renal blood flow;
4. Describe the effects of reductions in GFR on plasma creatinine concentrations and plot the
relationship;
5. Discuss the role of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle in producing a high renal interstitial fluid osmolality.
From the loop of Henle, contrast the tubular fluid and interstitial fluid osmolality changes that allow either a dilute
or a concentrated urine to be produced and excreted;
6. Describe processes that lead to acid-base disturbances and list the common causes;
7. Identify major routes and normal ranges for water intake and loss, and predict how changes in intake and loss
affect the distribution of total body water.
8. List the various body fluid compartments and their ionic compositions
9. Describe the methods used in measuring the body fluid compartments and
10. Discuss the role of the kidney in maintaining homeostasis of body fluids
Course Contents
Macroscopic, microscopic and ultra-structure of the kidney. Elements of renal functions. Glomerular filtration.
Concept of clearance. Tubular reabsorption and secretion. Renal blood flow. Body fluid and electrolyte balance.
Buffer mechanism and pH regulation. Counter-current system. Micturition. Abnormalities of renal functions.
Composition and estimation of body fluid compartments. Concept of water and electrolyte balance. Role of the
kidney in body fluid homeostasis.
PIO 214: Introduction to Cardiovascular and Respiratory Physiology (3 Units
C: LH 45)
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. state Starling’s law of the heart and describe the application of the law in keeping the output of the left and right
ventricles equal;
2. describe how ionic currents contribute to the four phases of the cardiac action potential;
3. explain the ionic mechanism of pacemaker automaticity and rhythmicity, and identify cardiac cells that have
pacemaker potential and their spontaneous rate;
4. identify neural and humoral factors that influence their rate;
5. describe the various phases of ventricular systole and ventricular diastole;
6. describe the timing and causes of the four heart sounds;
7. explain why the ECG tracing looks different in each of the 12 leads;
8. explain the principles underlying cardiac output measurements using the Fick principle, dye dilution, and
thermodilution methods;
9. list the factors that shift laminar flow to turbulent flow;
10. Describe the relationship between velocity, viscosity, and audible events, such as murmurs
and bruits;
11. describe how arterial systolic, diastolic, mean, and pulse pressure are affected by changes in a) stroke volume,
b) heart rate, c) arterial compliance, and d) total peripheral resistance;
12. Define the Starling equation and discuss how each component influences fluid movement across the capillary
wall;
13. List the anatomical components of the baroreceptor reflex;
14. Explain three positive feedback mechanisms activated during severe hemorrhage that may lead to circulatory
collapse and death;
15. Define compliance and identify two common clinical conditions in which lung compliance is higher or lower
than normal;
16. List the factors that determine total lung capacity, functional residual capacity, and residual volume;
17. Define surface tension and describe how it applies to lung mechanics, including the effects of alveolar size and
the role of surfactants;
18. Explain how the shape of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve influences the uptake and delivery of oxygen;
19. List the forms in which carbon dioxide is carried in the blood; and
20. Identify the regions in the central nervous system that play important roles in the generation and control of
normal respiration.
Course Contents
the heart; events of the cardiac cycle. Control of cardiac contractility. Cardiac electrophysiology. Properties of
cardiac muscles. Cardiac output - measurement and control. Haemodynamics of circulation. Arterial blood pressure
and its regulation. Cardiovascular reflexes. Peripheral resistance and local control of the circulation. Regional blood
flow.
Cardiovascular changes in exercise, haemorrhage and shock. Respiratory physiology – functions of upper
respiratory tract. Mechanics of respiration including compliance. Surfactant. Lung volume and capacities.
Pulmonary gas exchange. Blood gas transport. Pulmonary function tests. Nervous and chemical control of
respiration. Response to hypoxia, high altitude, exercise and artificial respiration.
PIO 216: Gastrointestinal Physiology (2 Units C: LH 30)
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. compare and contrast the regulation of gut function by nerves, hormones, and paracrine
regulators;
2. identify the cell type and anatomical location of the endocrine cells secreting major GI
hormones, such as gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), GLP-1, GLP-2, leptin, and
motilin;
3. List the physiological functions of the components of saliva;
4. Describe the role of HCl in the gastric digestion of carbohydrates and protein, and how
pepsinogen is activated;
5. List the mechanisms contributing to gastric mucosal defense and how they can be
compromised by drugs or pathogens;
6. List the stimuli that release secretin and CCK and explain the route by which these
regulatory peptides stimulate the pancreas;
7. Describe the cellular mechanisms for the hepatic uptake, conjugation, and secretion of bile
salts and bilirubin;
8. Describe the sequential digestion of ingested starch by enzymes of the salivary glands,
pancreas, and the intestinal apical membrane;
9. Describe the mechanisms and molecules mediating the solubilization and digestion of lipids
in the small intestine; and
10. Describe the disorders of motility that can lead to gastroparesis, achalasia, diarrhea,
constipation, megacolon and irritable bowel syndrome.
Course Contents
Physiologic anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract, Review of smooth muscle function,
Secretions in the G.I.T. and their control, Movements of the gastrointestinal tract, Digestion
and absorption of various food substances, Physiologic anatomy of the liver and biliary system
including their functions, Disorders of G.I.T, The gut as an endocrine organ. Nutrition: energy
and other dietary requirements. Basal metabolic rate. Nitrogen balance. Amino acid deficiency.
Hormonal control of nutritional needs, vitamins, mineral mechanisms. Food value of local
foodstuffs. Diet sheets and nutritional deficiency states.

ANA 204 Anatomy of Thorax, Abdomen, Pelvis and Peritoneum (units: 3, LH: 30, PH: 45)
Learning Objectives:
1. Identify and locate the anatomical structures within the thorax, including the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus,
and major blood vessels.
2. Describe the topographic anatomy of the abdominal organs and their relationships to surrounding structures,
including the peritoneum, retroperitoneum, and abdominal wall.
3. Outline the course and distribution of major blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves within the abdominal and
pelvic cavities.
4. Recognize the anatomical landmarks and surface markings used in clinical examination and surgical procedures
of the abdomen and pelvis.
5. Explain the embryological development and anatomical variations of organs and structures within the thorax,
abdomen, pelvis, and perineum.
6. Discuss the functional anatomy of the pelvic floor muscles and their role in supporting pelvic organs and
maintaining continence.
7. Interpret radiographic images, including X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and ultrasound, to identify anatomical
structures and pathology within the thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and perineum.
8. Demonstrate proficiency in anatomical dissection techniques and anatomical terminology related to the thorax,
abdomen, pelvis, and perineum.
9. Apply anatomical knowledge to clinical scenarios and case studies to formulate differential diagnoses and
treatment plans for medical conditions affecting the thoracic, abdominal, pelvic, and perineal regions.
10. Analyze the anatomical basis of surgical procedures, including approaches, incisions, and anatomical landmarks
for safe and effective surgical interventions.
11. Collaborate effectively with healthcare professionals, including surgeons, radiologists, and anatomical
pathologists, in the context of interdisciplinary patient care and management.
12. Critically evaluate anatomical research literature and scientific evidence to contribute to the advancement of
anatomical knowledge and medical practice.
13. Demonstrate professionalism, ethical conduct, and empathy in the practice of anatomical sciences and patient
care.

Course Content:

1. Introduction to Regional Anatomy:

Overview of anatomical terminology, body planes, and directional terms.
Introduction to the anatomical regions of the thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and perineum.
2. Thoracic Anatomy:
Anatomy of the thoracic wall, including bones, muscles, and neurovascular structures.
Structure and function of the respiratory system, including the lungs, trachea, bronchi, and diaphragm.
Anatomy of the mediastinum, including the heart, great vessels, and thymus gland.
3. Abdominal Anatomy:
Structure and function of the abdominal wall, including muscles, fascia, and neurovascular supply.
Anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract, including the esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas.
Anatomy of the abdominal organs, including the kidneys, adrenal glands, and spleen.
4. Pelvic Anatomy:
Anatomy of the pelvis, including bones, ligaments, and pelvic floor muscles.
Structure and function of the male and female reproductive systems, including the genital organs and associated
structures.
Anatomy of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
5. Perineal Anatomy:
Anatomy of the perineum, including muscles, nerves, and blood vessels.
Structure and function of the urogenital triangle and anal triangle.
Clinical considerations related to perineal anatomy, including obstetric injuries and pelvic floor disorders.
6. Radiological Anatomy and Imaging Techniques:
Introduction to radiological imaging modalities used to visualize anatomical structures in the thorax, abdomen,
pelvis, and perineum.
Interpretation of radiological images, including X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and ultrasound.
7. Clinical Correlations and Applied Anatomy:
Clinical relevance of anatomical knowledge in the diagnosis and management of medical conditions and
surgical procedures.
Correlation of anatomical structures with common clinical presentations and physical examination findings.
8. Embryology and Developmental Anatomy:
Overview of embryonic development and organogenesis of the thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and perineum.
Clinical implications of developmental anomalies and congenital malformations.
9. Surgical Anatomy and Procedures:
Anatomy of surgical approaches and operative procedures performed in the thoracic, abdominal, pelvic, and
perineal regions.

PIO 218: Introduction to Laboratory Physiology I (1 Unit C: PH 45)

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. acquaint themselves with the proper handling of laboratory equipment;
2. dissects laboratory animals and mount an isolated organs for a specific experiment;
3. use human subjects for some of the experiments like blood grouping, etc.;
4. take recordings of an experiment and interpret the results accordingly; and
5. understand basic laboratory management techniques and safety measures.
Course Contents
Laboratory sessions on basic physiology experiments, especially those related to the frog
sciatic nerve, smooth muscles and blood physiology.
ANA 203: General and Systemic Embryology (2 Units C: LH 15; PH 45)
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. explain how the embryo forms from the zygote;
2. discuss the role of cleavage and gastrulation in animal development;
3. demonstrate an understanding of embryology and significance of prenatal diagnostic
methods;
4. describe structural features of primordia in tissue and organs at different developmental
stages; and
5. define risk periods in histo- and organogenesis, and to analyse the most often observed
developmental anomalies.
Course Contents
Spermatogenesis, oogenesis; ovarian follicles; ovulation; corpus luteum; menstruation;
uterine cycle; hormonal control of uterine cycle; fertilization; cleavage; implantation;
reproductive technologies-IVF/surrogacy/embryo transfer; embryo manipulation &
potency/twinning; molecular embryology and transgenesis; gastrulation; notochord,
neurulation; derivatives of the germ layers; folding of the embryo; fetal membranes; placenta;
development of limbs and teratology, growth and perinatology; congenital malformations –
general introduction, the cardiovascular system, skin, structure of the nails and hair,
macrophagic system; cellular immunology; lymphoid organs; glands – endocrine and exocrine,
respiratory system, digestive system, urinary and genital systems,and electron micrograph
studies of each organ.

BCH 201: General Biochemistry I (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. explain the structure of different macromolecules in biological system;
2. identify types of chemical reactions involving these macromolecules;
3. explain the various methods of isolation of these macromolecules;
4. estimate the effects of acids and alkalis on the macromolecules;
5. describe how to purify the macromolecules; and
6. discuss quantification of the various macromolecules.
Course Contents
Introductory chemistry of amino acids, their properties, reactions and biological functions.
Classification of amino acids: neutral, basic and acidic; polar and non-polar; essential and nonessential amino acids.
Peptides. Introductory chemistry and classification of proteins.
Biological functions of proteins. Methods of their isolation, purification and identification.
Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins. Basic principles of tests for
proteins and amino acids. Introductory chemistry of carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
Nomenclature of nucleosides and nucleotides, effects of acid and alkali on hydrolysis of nucleic
acids.

BCH 202: General Biochemistry II (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will be able to:
1. describe the structure of the cell including its components;
2. Discuss the interrelationship between different organelles of the cell;
3. Recognize the differences between plant and animal cells;
4. Isolate the various organelles of both plant and animal cells; and
5. Discuss the influence of hydrogen ion concentration on cellular function.
Course Contents
The cell theory. Structures and functions of major cell components. Cell types, constancy and
diversity. Cell organelles of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Chemical composition of cells.
Centrifugation and methods of cell fractionation. Structure, function and fractionation of
extra-cellular organelles. Water, total body water and its distribution. Regulation of water and
electrolyte balance. Disorder of water and electrolyte balance. Acidity and alkalinity, pH and
pK values and their effects on cellular activities.

BCH 203: General Biochemistry Practical I (1 Unit C: PH 45)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will be able to understand the various laboratory procedures
used in the study of various biochemical processes described in BCH 201 and 202.
Course Contents
Laboratory experiments designed to reflect the topics covered in BCH 201 and BCH 202.
Introduction to laboratory methods and procedures employed in studying biochemical
processes.

BIO 208: Biostatistics (2 Units C: LH 30)

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lectures in this course, students should be able to:
1. differentiate between continuous and discontinuous data;
2. explain sampling procedures in biology;
3. summarize and present biological data;
4. describe measures of central tendency and probability theory; and
5. conduct ANOVA, Chi-square, t-tests and F-tests and state their importance.
Course Contents
Variability in biological data: continuous and discontinuous variables. Statistical sampling
procedures. Observations and problems of estimation. Representation and summarization of
biological data. Frequency distribution. Measures of central tendency and dispersion.
Probability theory. Normal, binomial and Poisson distribution. T-test, f-test and chi-square test.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and covariance. Principles of experimental design. Correlation,
linear and curvilinear regression and transformation