Unit 5 : Predicates

Here are the entry test questions with justifications:

Is “a tall tree” a referring expression? Answer: (c) sometimes a referring expression and sometimes not, depending on context and
circumstances of use

Justification: “A tall tree” can be referring (e.g., “I saw a tall tree yesterday”) or non-referring (e.g., “I want to plant a tall tree”).

Does the presence of referring expressions in a sentence depend on time and place? Answer: No (replace ‘sentence’ with
‘utterance’ for a correct statement)

Justification: Referring expressions depend on the context of the utterance, not the sentence itself.

Which sentence is equative? Answer: (c) Mahmoud is the Egyptian I was telling you about

Justification: Equative sentences equate two referring expressions, identifying the same entity.

Does “if” have sense like “dog”? Answer: No

Justification: “If” is a logical operator, whereas “dog” is a noun with descriptive sense.

Do “big” and “large” have the same sense? Answer: Yes

Justification: In these sentences, “big” and “large” are synonyms.

Which words can be referring expressions? Answer: John, Venus

Justification: Proper nouns (“John”, “Venus”) can be referring expressions.

Review Units 3 and 4 if you scored less than 5/6. Otherwise, proceed to the introduction.

Unit 3: Reference and Sense : Reference: relationship between words and entities / Sense: conceptual meaning of words

Unit 4: Referring Expressions : Referring expressions: words/phrases identifying entities / Equative sentences: identify same entity
using different expressions

Semantic Structure of Simple Declarative Sentences

Simple declarative sentences, such as: My dog bit the postman. Mrs Wraith is waiting for the downtown bus

Typically contain: Referring expressions (e.g., “My dog,” “the postman,” “Mrs. Wraith”) / Non-referring words (e.g., “bit,” “is waiting”)

Practice Exercise: Identify Non-Referring Words

Delete referring expressions and write the remainder to the right.

My dog bit the postman. (Bit)

Mrs. Wraith is writing the Mayor’s speech (Is writing)

Cairo is in Africa (Is in)

Edinburgh is between Aberdeen and York (Is between)

This place stinks (Stinks)

John’s car is red (Is red)

Einstein was a genius (Was a genius)

Analysis: Non-referring words convey relationships, actions, or states, essential to sentence meaning. Referring expressions
identify entities involved. Understanding this distinction clarifies sentence semantics.

Analyzing Sentence Remainders

The remainders in the right-hand column exhibit varied syntax, but each contains a word carrying more specific information.

Example Analysis:

Is writing → write (predicator). /. Is in → in (predicator) / Is between, and → between (predicator). /. Stinks → stink (predicator) Is
red → red (predicator) / Was a genius → genius (predicator)

These isolated words, called predicators, convey essential meaning in their respective sentences.

Predicators : In a sentence, the predicator is the word (or part of a word) carrying the most specific information, typically conveying
actions, states, or [Link] play a crucial role in sentence semantics, providing core meaning that combines with
referring expressions to express propositions.

By identifying predicators, we can distill sentence meaning into a concise, albeit ungrammatical, “Tarzan jungle talk” form (e.g.,
“Woman write speech”).

Identifying Predicators in Simple Declarative Sentences

Predicator : The predicator is the word (or partial group of words) not part of any referring expression, making the most specific
contribution to sentence meaning. It describes states or processes involving referring expressions.

Examples: Mummy is asleep: asleep (predicator) describes Mummy’s state. The white man loved the Indian maiden: love
(predicator) describes the process between the two referring expressions. Jimmy was waiting for the downtown bus: wait for
(predicator) describes Jimmy’s action.

Note: Tense indicators (e.g., past, present) convey meaningful information but contribute differently than predicators. Verb “be” (is,
was, are, were, am) is not the predicator in provided examples.

Practice Exercise: Identify Predicators

Strip away referring expressions and verb “be” (and other elements) to find predicators:

I am hungry. Hungry (predicator)

Joe is in San Francisco. In (predicator)

The Mayor is a crook . Crook (predicator)

The man who lives at number 10 Lee Crescent is whimsical. Whimsical (predicator)

The Royal Scottish Museum is behind Old College. Ans . Behind (predicator)

By isolating predicators, we clarify sentence meaning and distinguish it from other semantic contributions.

Semantic Analysis of Simple Declarative Sentences

Predicators can be various parts of speech: Adjectives (red, asleep, hungry, whimsical) / Verbs (write, stink, place) / Prepositions
(in, between, behind) ,/ Nouns (crook, genius)

Conjunctions (and, but, or) and articles (the, a) cannot serve as predicators.

Semantic Roles:

1. Predicator: illustrates state or process. 2. Argument(s): referring expression(s) involved

Examples:

Juan is Argentinian Ans . Predicator: Argentinian / Argument: Juan

Juan arrested Pablo. Ans . Predicator: arrest / Arguments: Juan, Pablo

Juan took Pablo to Rio Ans . Predicator: take / Arguments: Juan, Pablo, Rio

Practice Exercise:

Dennis is a menace. Ans . Predicator: menace / Argument(s): Dennis

Fred showed Jane his BMW. Ans .Predicator: show / Argument(s): Fred, Jane, his BMW

Donald is proud of his family. Ans . Predicator: proud / Argument(s): Donald, his family

The hospital is outside the city. Ans . Predicator: outside / Argument(s): the hospital, the city

Note:Semantic analysis (predicator/argument) differs from traditional grammatical analysis (subject/predicate). We focus on
semantic analysis, using the term “predicate” in a semantic sense, defined within Logic.

Semantic Analysis: Predicates and Predicator

Predicate : A predicate is a word (or sequence of words) functioning as a predicator in a sentence, with a single sense.

Examples of Predicates: - hungry - in / crook – asleep – hit - show – bottle - dusty – drink – woman - about

Non-Predicates: - and - or - but - not - you (as a pronoun) - Fred (as a proper noun)

Important Notes:

1. Predicates can be sequences of words (e.g., wait for, in front of). 2. Predicates must have a single sense, avoiding ambiguity. 3.
Context clarifies predicate meaning; subscripts distinguish senses (e.g., bank1, bank2).

Predicate vs. Predicator: Predicate: language system element (listed in dictionaries). / Predicator: semantic role in a particular
sentence.

Key Differences: Predicate is abstract, predicator is specific. - One can list predicates, but not predicators.

Sentence Structure: One predicator per simple sentence. Multiple predicate instances possible.

Understanding predicates and predicators clarifies sentence semantics, distinguishing between language system elements and their
roles in specific sentences.

Predicate and Predicator Identification Practice

Example: “A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon” Predicator: enter / Predicates (potential predicators in other sentences):

tall (John is tall) / handsome (He is handsome) / stranger (He is a stranger) / saloon (That building is a saloon)

Exercises:

Which sentences feature “male” as predicator?

(a) The male gorilla at the zoo had a nasty accident yesterday (b) The gorilla at the zoo is a male (c) The gorilla at the zoo is male

Answer: (b), (c)

Which sentences feature “human” as predicator?

(a) All humans are mortal (b) Socrates was human (c) These bones are human. Answer: (b), (c)

Analysis: In (1), “male” is a predicate in (a) but functions as predicator in (b) and (c). In (2), “human” is a predicate in (a) but
functions as predicator in (b) and (c).

Understanding the distinction between predicates and predicators clarifies sentence semantics and word functions.

Degree of Predicates

Degree of a Predicate : The degree of a predicate indicates the number of arguments it typically has in simple sentences.

Examples:- Asleep (one-place predicate, degree 1) - Love (verb, two-place predicate, degree 2)

Practice Exercises: Acceptability of sentences:

(a) Thornbury sneezed (Yes) (b) Thornbury sneezed a handful of pepper (No) (c) Thornbury sneezed his wife a handful of pepper
(No) Is sneeze a one-place predicate? (Yes)

Acceptability of sentences:
Martha hit (No) (b) Martha hit the sideboard (Yes) (c) Martha hit George the sideboard (No)

Is hit a one-place predicate? (No)/ Is die a one-place predicate? (Yes) / Is come a one-place predicate? (Yes)/ Is murder (verb) a
one-place predicate? (No)

Analysis:Sneezing typically requires one argument (degree 1). - Hitting requires two arguments (degree 2). - Dying and coming
typically require one argument (degree 1)..- Murdering requires two arguments (degree 2).

Understanding predicate degrees clarifies semantic relationships and argument requirements.

Understanding the degree of a predicate is crucial in semantics. Here’s a detailed explanation with examples:

Degree of a Predicate : The degree of a predicate indicates the number of arguments it typically requires in a sentence.

Types of Predicates by Degree

One-place predicate (Degree 1)*: Requires one argument.

Examples: Sleep (John sleeps) - Happy (John is happy) - Tall (John is tall)

Two-place predicate (Degree 2)*: Requires two arguments.

Examples: Love (John loves Mary) Hit (John hit Mary) - Give (John gave Mary a gift)

*Three-place predicate (Degree 3)*: Requires three arguments.

Examples:- Give (John gave Mary a book) - Show (John showed Mary the picture) - Invite (John invited Mary to dinner)

Determining Degree

To determine the degree of a predicate: 1. Identify the predicate (verb, adjective, or noun). 2. Analyze the sentence structure. 3.
Count the number of arguments required.

*Examples* “John runs” : Run (one-place predicate, degree 1) “John loves Mary” : Love (two-place predicate, degree 2) “John gave
Mary a book” : Give (three-place predicate, degree 3)

Key Points - Arguments can be entities (John, Mary) or properties (happy, tall). - Optional arguments don’t affect predicate degree
(e.g., “John ate” vs. “John ate breakfast”). Predicate degree remains constant, regardless of sentence complexity.

By understanding predicate degrees, you’ll better grasp semantic relationships and argument requirements in sentences.

Two-Place and Three-Place Predicates

Two-Place Predicates

Verbs naturally taking two arguments: subject and direct object.

Example: Martha hit the parrot - Hit (two-place predicate). Martha (subject) - the parrot (direct object)

Practice:

Acceptability of sentences: (a) Keith made (No) (b) Keith made this toy guillotine (Yes) (c) Keith made this toy guillotine his mother-
in-law (No)

Is make a two-place predicate? (Yes) / Is murder a two-place predicate? (Yes) / Is see a two-place predicate? (Yes)

Three-Place Predicates

Verbs naturally taking three arguments: subject, direct object, and indirect object.

Example: Herod gave Salome a nice present - Gave (three-place predicate) Herod (subject) - Salome (indirect object) - a nice
present (direct object)

Practice:For each sentence, indicate if it seems elliptical (omitting expected information):

(1) Herod gave (Yes) (2) Herod gave Salome (Yes) (3) Herod gave a nice present (Yes) (4) Herod gave Salome a nice present (No)
(5)Number of referring expressions in Sentence (4): 3
Analysis: - Two-place predicates require subject and direct object. - Three-place predicates require subject, direct object, and
indirect object.- Elliptical sentences omit expected information. Understanding predicate places clarifies semantic relationships and
argument requirements.

Predicates: Verbs, Prepositions, Nouns, and Adjectives

Prepositional Predicates

Referring expressions in “Your marble is under my chair”: 2 / “Your marble is under” acceptable: No / “Your marble is under my chair
the carpet” acceptable: No / of predicate “under”: 2 (two-place predicate) / Degree of predicate “near”: 2 6) “Dundee is between
Aberdeen” acceptable: No 7) “Dundee is between Aberdeen and Edinburgh” acceptable: Yes 8) Degree of predicate “between”: 3
(three-place predicate)

Adjectival Predicates

Most adjectives are one-place predicates.

Referring expressions in “Philip is handsome”: 1 / “Philip is handsome John” acceptable: No / Degree of predicate “handsome”: 1 /
Degree of predicate “rotten”: 1 / Degree of predicate “smelly”: 1

Exceptions: Adjectives with Prepositional Phrases

“John is afraid of Fido” acceptable: Yes / “John is afraid” seems elliptical: Yes / “Afraid” as two-place predicate: Yes / “Your house is
different from mine” acceptable: Yes / “Your house is different” seems elliptical: Yes / Degree of predicate “different”: 2 / Degree of
predicate “identical”: 2 / Degree of predicate “similar”: 2

Analysis:Prepositions (under, near) can be two-place [Link] adjectives (handsome, rotten, smelly) are one-place
[Link] adjectives (afraid, different, identical, similar) can be two-place predicates with prepositional phrases.

Understanding predicate degrees and types clarifies semantic relationships and argument requirements.

Practice exercises

Noun Predicates

Referring expressions in “John is a corporal”: 1. Justification: Only “John” is the referring expression.

“John is a corporal the army” acceptable: No Justification: The sentence is grammatically incorrect.

Degree of predicate “corporal”: 1 Justification: “Corporal” requires only one argument.

Degree of predicate “hero”: 1 Justification: “Hero” requires only one argument.

Degree of predicate “crook”: 1. Justification: “Crook” requires only one argument.

Referring expressions in “This object is a pitchfork”: 1. Justification: Only “This object” is the referring expression.

Degree of predicate “pitchfork”: 1. Justification: “Pitchfork” requires only one argument.

Relational Noun Predicates

“John is a brother” seems odd: Yes. Justification: The sentence lacks context.

“John is a brother of the Mayor of Miami” acceptable: Yes Justification: The sentence provides complete information.

“Brother” as two-place predicate: Yes Justification: “Brother” requires two arguments.

“Sister” as two-place predicate: Yes Justification: “Sister” requires two arguments.

Equivalent Predicates

Example analysis: Ronald is foolish / Ronald is a fool (one-place predicates)

Timothy is afraid of cats / Timothy fears cats (two-place predicates)

My parrot is a talker / My parrot talks (one-place predicates)

Identity Relation : Identity relation expressed by “be” in:

(1) This is a spider: No. (2) This is my father: Yes. (3) This is the person I was telling you about at dinner last night: Yes. (4) The
person I was telling you about at dinner last night is in the next room: No. (5) The person I was telling you about at dinner last night
is the man talking to Harry: Yes. (6) The whale is a mammal: No

Justification:Sentences (2), (3), and (5) express identity between two referring expressions.

Role of Verb “Be” : Identity predicate (sentences 2, 3, 5) Linking device for non-verbal predicates (John is a fool, John is foolish) /
Tense carrier (present or past)

Understanding predicate types, degrees, and the identity relation clarifies semantic relationships and argument requirements.