General English- Part 2
Vocabulary Development
Word Formation
Vocabulary: a set of lexemes, including single words, compound
words and idioms.
lexeme (n): also lexical item: the smallest unit in the
meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from
other similar units.
lexicon (n): the set of all the words and idioms of any language.
lexis (n) lexical (adj): the vocabulary of a language in contrast to
its grammar (syntax).
morphology (n): the study of morphemes and their different forms,
and the way they combine in word formation. For example, the
English word unfriendly is formed from friend, the adjective-
forming suffix -ly and the negative prefix un-.
morpheme (n) :the smallest meaningful unit in a language.
Morphemes can be of two types namely (1)free morpheme/
free form (FM/ FF) like happy and (2) bound morpheme/
bound form (BM/ BF) like un- in unhappy.
stem (n) also base form: that part of a word to which an affix is or
can be added. For example: work + er = worker
affix (n) a letter or group of letters (= a bound morpheme), which
is added to a free morpheme (stem), and changes the meaning or
function of the stem.
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Affixes can be added:
a. to the beginning of a stem (= a prefix), e.g. English un- which
usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite: kind – unkind
b. to the end of a stem (= a suffix), e.g. English-ness which usually
changes an adjective into a noun: kind – kindness
►Prefixes either change the meaning of the stem or add to its
meaning but very few prefixes change the parts of speech.
►Suffixes are of two types:
A. Inflectional: those which do not change the parts of speech.
B. Derivational: those which change parts of speech.
1. Noun making like ~ment, ~ity, ~ness
2. Adjective making like ~ive, ~ful, ~less
3. Adverb making like ~ly, ~ward
4. Verb making like ~fy, ~ize
Word formation: processes used in a language for the creation of
new words. There are several ways of doing this, including:
a. the addition of an affix in derivation
►Derivation: in morphology and word formation, the formation of
new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes. For
example, the noun insanity is derived from the adjective sane by the
addition of the negative prefix in- and the noun-forming suffix –ity.
Derivation typically results in changes of parts of speech. It can be
contrasted with inflection, which never changes the lexical category.
b. the removal of an affix: back formation
►Speakers of English have formed the verbs televise, peddle, and
babysit from television, peddler, and babysitter, respectively.
c. the addition of a combining form like ing or ed
d. the construction of a compound word
► a combination of two or more words which functions as a single
word. For example self-made (a compound adjective) as in He was a
self-made man and flower shop (a compound noun) as in They went
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to the flower shop. Compound words are written either as a single
word (e.g. headache), as hyphenated words (e.g. self-government), or
as two words (e.g. police station).
e. the shortening of an old word, as when influenza becomes flu
►Clipping: the shortening of a word by dropping or “clipping” one
or more syllables, e.g. doc – doctor, lab – laboratory, math
mathematics, wiz – wizard (a very clever or skillful person< computer
wizards>).
f. the repetition of a word or part of a word: reduplication
►reduplication: repetition of a syllable, a morpheme, or a word. For
example: win-win, tut-tut
g. the invention of a completely new word, such as the
mathematical term googol ( the figure1 followed by 100 zeros ,
coined by Milton Sirotta, First use1938), google (2001)
h. the addition of an affix in inflection
►inflection/inflexion (n) inflect (v) (in morphology) the process of
adding an affix to a word or changing it in some other way according
to the rules of the grammar of a [Link] example, in English,
verbs are inflected for 3rd-person singular: I work,he/she works and
for past tense: I worked. Most nouns may be inflected for plural:
horse – horses, flower – flowers, man – men.
i. the naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the
sounds associated with them
►onomatopoeia also sound symbolism, echoism refers to words
that are considered by convention to be imitative of nature,
acoustically similar to the thing to which they refer (e.g. the bow-wow
of a dog or the tick-tock of a clock) or the sound made by the thing to
which they refer (e.g. a buzz saw). There are other words that are
examples of semionomatopoeia, such as the English words splash or
growl. Languages differ in the range, choice, and phonetic
realizations of onomatopoeic [Link] English dog goes bow-wow or
ruff-ruff or woof-woof; a Japanese onegoes wan-wan.
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j. the use of words as different parts of speech, as when the noun
cap is used as the verb to cap.
Only a free morpheme like pure
BM + FM like dishonest
Word FM + BM like frankly
BM + FM + BM like dishonorable
FM + FM like workshop
Prefixes, Suffixes, and Stems: Meanings and Examples
Prefixes,
Suffixes, and Stems Meaning Example
a, an without, not atypical
ab away (from) absent, abstract
~able, ible capable of portable, edible
ac characteristic of cardiac
acer, acr sour, bitter acerbity, acrid
ad to, toward adhere
~age state of marriage
~al relating to annual
ambi both ambivalent
~an, ian belonging to suburban, Canadian
~ance, ancy, ence, ency act of, state of assistance, dependence
~ant, ent, er, or, eer, ier, one who acts farmer, sailor, auctioneer
ante before anteroom, antebellum
anthropo man, mankind anthropology, anthropoid
anti against, opposed antipathy, antisocial
aqua water aquatic
~ar, ary, ory relating to similar, imaginary
arch chief, principle archenemy, matriarch
aud hear auditory, auditorium
auto self automatic
bene well, good beneficial
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bibl book Bible, bibliography
bio life biology, autobiography
brev short brevity
~cede, ceed go, move proceed, recede
chrom color chromatography
chron time chronological
~cide killing pesticide, homicide
circum around circumference
cis cut excise
clar clear clarity
co, col,com, con together, with cooperate, combine
cogni know recognize
counter, contra against, opposite counteract, contrary
cred believe credential, credible
crypt secret, hidden cryptic
cycl circle bicycle, cyclical
de from, away decompose, depart
dent tooth dental, dentist
derm skin dermal, dermatitis
dia through, apart diameter, diagonal
dic, dict say dictate, dictation
dis apart, from, out, disappear, distract
~dom state, domain of martyrdom, kingdom
~dox praise, belief orthodox
~duc, duct lead aqueduct, conduct
dyna power dynamic
dys hard, ill, with difficulty dysfunction, dystopia
~ee person who is employee, trainee
ego I, self egoism, egotism
~en to make, become shorten, deepen
epi on, outer epigram, epitaph
~ese relating to journalese, Portugese
eu well, good euphemism, euphoria
ex out, from exhale, exit
extra beyond, outside extracurricular
fort strong fortress, forte, fortify
frater brother fraternity, fraternal
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~fy to make clarify, beautify
gamy marriage monogamy, polygamy
gen race, origin, kind genetic, Genesis
geo earth geology, geography
graph, gram write telegraph, monograph
gress go, move progress, digress
gyn woman gynophobia, gynecology
hetero other, different heterogeneous
homo, homeo same, like, similar homogeneous
hydr water hydroplane, hydrology
hyper excessive, over, above hyperactive, hypertension
hypo under, below, beneath hypodermic
~ic, ical of, like, related to geometric, numerical
il, im, in, ir not illegal, infiltrate
inter between interfere, intercede
intra in, into, on, within intranet, intrastate
~ion, sion, tion state of, condition of prediction, provision
~ish like childish, sheepish
~ism doctrine, practice of realism, plagiarism
~ist person who socialist, dentist
junct join conjunction
~less without wireless, careless
logy study of virology, biology
macro large macroeconomics
magn large, great magnify
mal bad malpractice, maladjusted
man hand manuscript, manicure
mater mother maternal, maternity
mega big megaphone
~ment state of being improvement
meter, metr measure thermometer, speedometer
micro small microscope
mis wrong, ill misinform
mis, miso hatred misanthrope
mit, miss send transmit, missile
morph form, shape amorphous
mort death mortality
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multi many multivitamin, multitude
nav ship, sail naval, navigate
neb hazy, cloudy nebulous
non not nonadjustable
nym name pseudonym
omni all pandemonium
ortho straight, right orthopedics
pan all pandemic, pandemonium
para beside parallel
pater father paternal
path feeling, suffering apathy
ped, pod, pede, pus foot pedal, millipede, octapus
pel push, drive propel
per through, completely perforate
peri around perimeter
phil love, like philanthropy
phobia fear photophobia, hydrophobia
phon sound telephone, phonics
photo light photosynthesis
poly many polygamy
pon, pos place, put opponent, position
port carry porter, portable
post after postpone
pot strength, ability potential
pre before prefix, preamble
pseudo false pseudoscience
psych mind, soul psychology
pyr fire pyromania
re back, again return, redo
rupt break rupture, abrupt
scrib, script write transcribe, scripture
scop see, look telescope
se away, from seclude, segregate
sect cut dissect, subsection
semi half semiprivate, semicolon
simil like similar, similitude
soph wise sophisticated, philosophy
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spect see, look spectator, perspective
sub under submarine, subordinate
super over, above supersonic, supervisor
syn, sym with, together synchronize, symphony
tech art, skill technology, technetronic
tele far telephone, telepathy
ten hold tenacity, tendon
tend stretch extend
terra earth terrier, terrace
therm heat thermal, thermodynamics
tort twist distort, contort
trans across transport, transfer
tudo quality, state, result servitude
ultra beyond, excessively ultramodern
un not, opposing, reverse unlawful, unavailable
under below, beneath underground, underline
viv life vivacious, survive
voc call, voice vocal, vocation
vor eat greedily voracious, voracity
Considering the clues, give precise and concise definitions
or exact synonyms for the underlined words.
1. You will need to report your change of domicile to the university so
that they may know where you are living.
Clue: where you are living
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2. Some critics believe that Jonathon Swift was a misogynist.
Clues: mis gyn ist
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3. Germanium and silicon are two semiconductors widely used in
electronics.
Clues: semi con duct or
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4. Donald Trump has ordered to incarcerate all the leaders of the
protesters in Washington DC and let them out after the presidential
election.
Clue: let them out
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5. One of the princes has been arrested for homicide.
Clues: homi cide
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6. After two months of bloody war, both sides finally agreed on a 72-
hour truce.
Clue: After two months of bloody war
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7. The apathetic attitude of the public toward Covid-19 pandemic can
lead to a catastrophe.
Clues: a path ic
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8. Almost all the people, if not all, like to lead their lives in a
theocentric culture.
Clues: theo centr ic
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9. Although Macron calls himself a broad-minded and liberal
politician, he is trying to gag the press so that nobody can question
his office.
Clue: broad-minded and liberal politician
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10. A great number of virologists prescribed zidovudine to treat
patients suffering from Covid-19 and thought that it might be helpful
to treat this disease as it has been used to treat AIDS.
Clue: prescribed- to treat patients- to treat this disease -
to treat AIDS
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11. An omnidirectional antenna is used in this radar system.
Clues: omni direct ion al
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12. Most of the visitors in Tokyo try teriyaki in a traditional
restaurant.
Clues: Tokyo, traditional restaurant
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13. By the middle of the winter, they were hankering for a warm day
and wished to enjoy the sunshine.
Clue: wished to enjoy the sunshine
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14. Donald and Joe are more like two contentious game-cocks
struggling to defeat the rival.
Clue: struggling to defeat the rival
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15. An updated method of multivariate data analysis has been used
in this study.
Clue: multi, (vary)variate
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