SCIENCE GRADE:8

CHAPTER 1
ECOLOGY

NOTES BY
FATIMA AZHAR

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1. Carbon Cycle:
- Carbon is a key component of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and
is continuously cycled between living organisms (biotic) and their
environment (abiotic).
- The carbon cycle involves the following processes:
2. Respiration:
- Living organisms respire, releasing carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the air.
- Equation: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water
3. Photosynthesis:
- Plants take in CO₂ from the air to produce food.
- Equation: Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen (using
sunlight)
4. Combustion:
- Fossil fuels, which contain carbon, release CO₂ when burned.
5. Decomposition:
- Carbon in dead organisms, waste, and urine is broken down by
bacteria and fungi, releasing CO₂ back into the atmosphere.
6. Key Terms:
- Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆): A sugar produced by plants during
photosynthesis.
- Fossil Fuels: Organic matter from ancient plants/animals that
release carbon when burned.

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A CARBON CYCLE

7. Diagram Summary:
- Photosynthesis: Converts CO₂ into glucose in plants.
- Respiration: Returns CO₂ to the atmosphere.
- Combustion and Decomposition: Release carbon stored in fossil fuels and
dead matter.
- Human Activity: Transportation and factory emissions contribute to CO₂ in
the atmosphere.
1. Carbon and Oxygen Cycles:
- The carbon and oxygen cycles are interconnected and complementary.
- These cycles help maintain balance and symmetry, essential for life on Earth.

2. Complementary Processes:
- The processes involved in the carbon cycle (like photosynthesis and
respiration) are also part of the oxygen cycle.
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 - While carbon is being circulated, oxygen is passed in and out of living
organisms

1. Upsetting the Balance

- In a balanced ecosystem, photosynthesis and respiration help maintain
steady levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- Industrialization over the past 200 years has increased the burning of fossil
fuels, leading to more CO₂ in the air.
- Deforestation reduces the number of trees available to absorb carbon
dioxide, further disrupting the cycle.
- As populations grow, there is an increased demand for food and space,
leading to further deforestation and increased CO₂ emissions

2. Did You Know?

- One of the largest sources of oxygen is tiny plants called phytoplankton that
live just below the surface of the oceans.

Deforestation: Fewer trees mean less CO₂ absorption.

- Population Growth: More people require more space and resources,
increasing the demand for agricultural land and deforestation.
- Fossil Fuels: Burning fuels releases massive amounts of CO₂, contributing to
climate change.

These points emphasize the importance of maintaining a balance in carbon and

oxygen cycles for the health of the planet.
Greenhouse Effect & Global Warming:

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Greenhouse gases (CO₂) trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere.

This trapped heat is essential for maintaining temperatures suitable for life.
Increased greenhouse gases result from human activities (e.g., burning fossil
fuels).
Excessive greenhouse gases lead to global warming and extreme weather
conditions (e.g., hurricanes, heatwaves, floods).
Key Effects:
 Land and ocean temperatures are rising.
 Melting of ice in polar regions and glaciers.
 Rising water levels, particularly affecting low-lying areas.
More extreme weather conditions are occurring due to global warming.
 Important Concepts:
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is the main greenhouse gas responsible for warming.
 The greenhouse effect keeps Earth warm by trapping heat radiation.
 "Did You Know?" Fact:
 Methane is another greenhouse gas, released naturally from areas like rice
fields and livestock (when they belch or break wind).

Food Chains, Webs, and Energy Flow:

Living organisms need energy to survive, which they get from the food they
consume.
Plants make their own food using sunlight through photosynthesis.
The relationships between organisms in an ecosystem can be explained using
food chains and food webs.
Key Roles in Food Chains:
Producers:
Green plants are producers because they make their own food.

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Decomposers:
Break down dead plants and animals, returning nutrients to the soil.
Consumers:
Animals that cannot make their own food; they consume other living things
(plants or animals).
Types of Consumers:
Herbivores:
Animals that eat plants (e.g., rabbits).
Carnivores:
Animals that eat other animals (e.g., foxes).
Omnivores:
Animals that eat both plants and animals (e.g., badgers).

 Each plant or animal is a link or

level in foodchain
 The arrows show the transfer of
energy between them

FOOD WEBS:
A food web is a way to show how energy and nutrients flow through an
ecosystem. It’s a complex network of interconnected food chains. Each food

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 chain represents a series of organisms where each one is eaten by the next
one in the chain.

Key Points:
 Producers (like grass) make their own food using sunlight.
 Primary Consumers (like rabbits and insects) eat producers.
 Secondary Consumers (like foxes) eat primary consumers.
 Tertiary Consumers (like owls and hawks) eat secondary consumers.

o Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way direction — from
the sun to producers and then through various consumers. This flow
of energy is crucial for sustaining life in an ecosystem.

1. Producers (Autotrophs):

- Plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight to make food through
photosynthesis.

- They convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in glucose.

2. Consumers (Heterotrophs):

- Primary consumers (herbivores) eat producers to get energy.

- Secondary consumers (carnivores or omnivores) eat herbivores.

- Tertiary consumers (top predators) eat secondary consumers.

3. Decomposers:

- Decomposers like bacteria and fungi break down dead plants and animals,
returning nutrients to the soil but do not transfer energy back to the sun.

4. Energy Loss:

- Only 10% of the energy is passed on from one trophic level to the next.

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 - The remaining 90% of the energy is lost as heat during metabolic
processes like respiration.

Example of Energy Flow:

- Sun → Grass (Producer) → Rabbit (Primary consumer) → Fox

(Secondary consumer) → Eagle (Ter ary consumer)

LOSING ENERGY :
Energy flow through the food chain is very inefficient, lots of energy is lost
in the environment as heat at each stage .

REMEMBER:
 Only 10% of the energy is transferred from one source to another
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 Foodchains barely have more than 5 feeding levels as huge amount of
energy is lost at each level.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS:
Predator-Prey Relationship: An important interaction between two species
where one (the predator) hunts and eats the other (the prey).

Population Control: The number of predators affects the size of the prey
population. Predators typically remove weak, sick, or old individuals from
the prey population, which helps maintain the health of the species as a
whole.

Example: The image of a lion hunting demonstrates this relationship in

nature.

Competition:

Competition: All living things compete for resources like food, water,
space, and shelter.

Plants vs. Animals: Both plants and animals compete for these resources.
Plants compete for light, water, and nutrients from the soil, while animals
compete for food, water, and shelter.

Better Competitors: Organisms that are better at finding food, shelter, or

mates survive longer and reproduce more successfully. The fittest
individuals usually win the competition.

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  A
dvantages for animals to move:
Moving from one place to another
helps animals find food, water, or
mates and escape predators or harsh
conditions.

 Why trees
grown for building are planted close
together: Trees grown for building
have straight trunks because they
are planted close, making them compete for sunlight. This
causes them to grow tall and
Straight with minimal branching

PREDATORS AND PREY:

Predators

Definition: Predators are animals that hunt, kill, and consume other
animals (prey) for food. They can be carnivores, omnivores, or even
herbivores that occasionally eat meat.

Examples:
 Carnivores: Lions, wolves, eagles.

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  Omnivores: Bears, some birds (like crows), and some reptiles (like
crocodiles).
 Specialists: Certain insects (like praying mantises) or fish (like
pike).

Characteristics:

 Adaptations: Predators often have adaptations for hunting, such

as sharp teeth, claws, or enhanced senses (e.g., keen eyesight or
smell).
 Behavior: Predators may exhibit complex hunting strategies, such
as stalking or ambush tactics.

Prey

Definition: Prey are animals that are hunted and eaten by predators.
They are a critical food source for predators and play an essential role
in the food web.

Examples:
 Herbivores: Deer, rabbits, and insects.
 Small Animals: Rodents, fish, and some birds.
 Adaptations: Prey animals have various adaptations for evading
predators, such as camouflage, speed, or defensive behaviors
(e.g., squirting chemicals).

Characteristics:
 Adaptations: Many prey species have evolved physical or
behavioral adaptations to avoid being eaten, such as faster
running speed, ability to hide, or mimicry (looking like something
inedible or dangerous).
 Behavior: Prey animals often have survival strategies like flocking
or herding to reduce the chance of individual predation.

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Ecological Impact
1. Population Control: Predators help regulate the population size of
prey species, preventing overpopulation and overgrazing, which can
lead to habitat degradation.
2. Natural Selection: Predation pressures can lead to evolutionary
changes in both predators and prey. For example, faster prey may
evolve from selective pressures to evade faster predators.
3. Food Web Dynamics: The interaction between predators and prey
influences the entire food web and ecosystem stability. Disruptions
in predator-prey relationships can have cascading effects throughout
the ecosystem.
4. Biodiversity: Healthy predator-prey dynamics contribute to
biodiversity by maintaining diverse populations and preventing any
one species from dominating an ecosystem.

SYMBIOSIS:
Symbiosis means living together .A symbiotic rs is close interaction
bwtween organisms of two different species in an ecosystem ,these
Interactions can be harmful, helpful or have no effect.
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there are three main types:
1. Mutualism: Both organisms benefit from the relationship.
Example: Bacteria in a cow's stomach help digest cellulose, providing
food for bacteria and aiding digestion for the cow.
2. Commensalism: One organism benefits while the other is neither
harmed nor helped.
Example: Remora fish feed on scraps of food that escape from the
mouth of a shark without harming or affecting the shark.
3. Parasitism: One organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of
the other (the host).
Example: Ticks attach to the skin of animals like dogs and feed on their
blood, harming the host.
Did you know?
Ticks are not insects but arachnids, related to spiders and scorpions.
Predator-Prey Relationship:
Although not a form of symbiosis, predator-prey interactions involve
one organism (the predator) benefiting by consuming another
organism (the prey). The predator-prey relationship can sometimes
mimic symbiosis in ecosystems, as it influences the balance and
population dynamics of species.

CHANGE PART OF FOODWEB:

Impact of Removing Species:

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Removing animals from a food web, either by hunting or
extermination, can cause long-term changes.
Example: UK rabbits help control plant growth. When their population
was reduced, wild plants overgrew, and herbivores like hares increased
due to more food availability. This also affected carnivores like foxes,
leading to imbalances in the ecosystem.
Example from Poland (DDT):
Otters were killed to protect fish stocks, which ultimately caused fish
populations to fall as otters control other predators.
DDT (a pesticide) sprayed to kill pests (spider mites) led to increased
numbers of other insects. This caused a decline in carnivorous bird
populations, like herons and grebes, that relied on these insects for
food.
Unexpected Results:
Changes to food webs, like pesticide use or species removal, can have
cascading and often unpredictable effects on other species.

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND ECOSYSTEM:

Pollution: Human activities introduce pollutants into the environment,
harming ecosystems by reducing air and water quality.
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Solutions for Reducing Environmental Damage:
Reduce: Minimize the use of disposable and single-use plastic items to
reduce waste and pollution.
Reuse: Opt for reusable items instead of disposable ones whenever
possible.
Recycle: Properly recycle plastics and other materials to limit waste.
Biodegradable Packaging: Use packaging that decomposes quickly,
reducing environmental impact.
Plant More Trees: Planting trees helps restore rainforests, stabilizes
ecosystems, and supports the water cycle.

1. Pollution and its Effects:

Water Pollution:
Rivers, lakes, and oceans are contaminated by plastics, industrial
waste, oil spills, and toxic chemicals like lead and mercury.

Human waste should be treated before being released into water

bodies to reduce contamination.

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Air Pollution:
Greenhouse gas emissions, especially from fossil fuels and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), damage the ozone layer and contribute to
global warming.
Using renewable energy (like solar and wind) can reduce air pollution.
2. Reducing Environmental Damage:
Reduce: Minimize pollution by limiting single-use plastics and harmful
chemical waste.
Recycle: Properly recycle plastics and old appliances (such as
refrigerators) to prevent harmful chemicals from leaking into the
environment.
Reuse: Opt for products that can be reused instead of disposable
items.
Biodegradable Packaging: Switch to packaging that decomposes
quickly to reduce waste.
Renewable Energy: Using solar, wind, and other renewable sources
helps to reduce air pollution and slow global warming.

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