PHY ADVANCED QUANTUM MECHANICS

Department of Physics, Busitema University

(PART 2)

September 4, 2023

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Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering (1/19)
Scattering is the process where particles coming from a distance,
long enough to neglect their interactions, get near enough to each
other for feeling a force modifying their trajectories

In classical mechanics, the goal of scattering theory is to determine

the final trajectories of particles from their initial ones.

In quantum mechanics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle

prevents to define precisely, at the same time, both the position
and the momentum of particles

The main goal of a quantum scattering theory is the determination

of the distribution of momenta and other internal quantum
numbers of particles going out from a scattering process

For example, in an experiment where a beam of particles A hits a

fixed target made of particles B, produces the reaction

A + B → X1 + X2 + ... + Xn (1)
2 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (2/19)
In such an experiment, the number of events of this kind produced
per unit time (the total rate) can be measured as

dNout
Γout = (2)
dt
Consider that the flow of incoming particle is defined as

dNA
ΦA = (3)
dt dΣ
dΣ is the surface element orthogonal to the beam. The event rate
is proportional to ΦA and the number NB of B particles seen by
the beam is

dNout
= ΦA .NB .σ (4)
dt
σ is a proportionality constant which has the dimension of surface.
It only depends on the kinematics and dynamics of the elementary
reaction (Eqn (1)). It is called the cross section of the process
3 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (3/19)

The distribution of directions and energies of the out coming

particles can be measured as

dNout dσ
= ΦA .NB . (5)
dt dE1 ...dEn dΩ1 ...dΩn dE1 ...dEn dΩ1 ...dΩn
The distribution can be expressed as

dNout dσ
= ΦA .NB . (6)
dt dEi dΩi . dEi dΩi
dσ
The quantity dEi dΩI is called the differential cross section

Our main focus of the quantum scattering theory will be the

calculation of cross sections, to be compared with the results of our
experiments, starting from Hamiltonians describing the interactions

4 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (4/19)

Elastic Scattering

Consider the scattering between two particles A and B; and assume

that the interaction between the two particles goes to zero as their
distance r → ∞

In this case, the initial state (incoming particle coming from a large
distance) and the final one (both particles going far from the
interaction point) can be assumed as free particle states

Consider specifically the processes where the particle species are

not changed by the interaction (elastic scattering)

In the case of inelastic scattering, the outcoming particles differ

with respect to the incoming ones, e.g., when the target particle is
broken into fragments or brought to an excited state

5 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (5/19)
Consider the elastic scattering of two particles A and B

A+B →A+B (7)

If K is the kinetic energy, m the mass and primed quantities refer
to the final state, the conservation of total energy implies
0 0
KA + mA + mB = KA + mA + KB + mB (8)
The total kinetic energy is conserved in elastic scattering
0 0
KA = KA + KB (9)
The total momentum is also conserved
0 0
p~A = p~A + p~B (10)
From Eqn (10) the momentum transfer q is given by
0
q = p~A − p~A (11)
6 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (6/19)
Two-particle scattering as a potential scattering

Similar to classical mechanics, in quantum mechanics the two-body

problem can also be reduced to two independent one-body
problems

By symmetry, the potential describing the interaction between two

particles, not subject to any external force, can only depend on
their relative position ~r , relative velocity ~r˙ and internal quantum
numbers nA , nB

If the positions of A and B are ~xA and ~xB respectively, the relative
position r is given by

r = ~xA − ~xB (12)

The potential V can be expressed as

V = V (~r , ~r˙ , nA , nB ) (13)

7 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (7/19)
Considering only the dependence on ~r , the time-independent
Schrödinger equation for the system can be expressed as
 2 2 
2 ∇A 2 ∇B
−~ −~ + V (~xA , ~xB ) ψ(~xA , ~xB ) = E ψ(~xA , ~xB ) (14)
2mA 2mB
If we define R as

mA ~xA + mB ~xB
R= , (15)
mA + mB
The Schrödinger equation is expressed as
 2 2 
2 ∇r 2 ∇R ~ = E ψ(~r , R)
~
−~ −~ + V (~r ) ψ(~r , R) (16)
2µ 2M
In Eqn (16) M = mA + mB is the total mass of the system and µ
is the reduces mass given by
mA mB
µ= (17)
mA + mB 8 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (8/19)
~ can be separated into two as
ψ(~r , R)

~ = χ(R)ϕ(~
ψ(~r , R) ~ r ), E = Er + ECM (18)
In this case, the uninteresting free particle Schrödinger equation for
the centre of mass of the system is expressed as

∇2R ~ ~
−~2 χ(R) = ECM χ(R) (19)
2M
The equation containing all the dynamics of the problem is
expressed as
2
 
2 ∇r
−~ + V (~r ) ϕ(~r ) = Er ϕ(~r ) (20)
2µ
We will consider how the scattering problem can be treated as a
standing wave scattering. In this case, we will need to solve the
time-independent Schrödinger equation for a two-body system
9 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (9/19)

In Eqn (20) we have shown that the problem can be reduced to a

problem of a single particle of mass µ subject to a potential V (~r )

The boundary condition is dictated by the fact that the particle is

free for r → ∞, and in this case the wave function at large
distance from the scattering centre has to reduce to a plane wave.

This is typically referred to as the problem of scattering of a

particle by a potential (potential scattering)

If we also neglect the effect of the particles’s spin and other

internal quantum numbers, there is no preferred direction for the
interaction between the two particles, which consequently can only
depend r =| ~r |.

In this case there is a potential V (~r ) = V (r )

10 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (10/19)

Therefore the equation to solve is

2
 
2∇
−~ + V (r ) ϕ(~r ) = E ϕ(~r ) (21)
2µ
In Eqn (21) the subscripts r have been dropped for cleanliness of
notation

Time-independent treatment of quantum scattering

Consider the elastic scattering of a beam of incoming particles of

mass µ and same momentum p~ into fixed scattering centres
generating a potential V (~r )

11 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (11/19)

Consider a set of particles, found

inside a volume τ closed by the
surface Σ
We can define the probabilty
current J~ in such a way that the
probability a particle is found inside
the volume τ closed by the surface
Σ changes with time as
Z
dP ~
= − J.n̂dΣ (22)
dt Σ
If ϕ is the wave function of a
particle in the beam, then
Z
P= | ϕ |2 dτ (23)
τ
12 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (12/19)
Substituting Eqn (23) into Eqn(22) gives
Z Z Z
d ∂ ~
| ϕ |2 dτ = | ϕ |2 dτ = − J.n̂dΣ (24)
dt τ τ ∂t Σ
Using Gauss theorem,
Z Z
~
J.n̂dΣ = ∇. ~
~ Jdτ (25)
Σ τ
Therefore

~ J~ = ∂ | ϕ |2
−∇. (26)
∂t
Using the Schrödinger equation

∂ϕ ~2
i~ = − ∇2 ϕ + V ϕ (27)
∂t 2µ
~
and the identity ∇.(ϕ ~
∇ϕ) ~ 2 ϕ+∇ϕ.
= ϕ∇ ~ ∇ϕ,
~ It can be shown that
13 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (13/19)

i~  ∗ ~ ~ ∗

J~ = − ϕ ∇ϕ − ϕ∇ϕ (28)
2µ
For a set of N particles, the particle flow through the surface is
related to the probability current by

d 2N d 2P ~
Φ= =N = N(J.n̂) (29)
dtdΣ dtdΣ
Considering the incoming beam of particles, each particle can be
described by a standing plane wave

ϕ(~r ) = A exp(i ~k.~r ) (30)

where ~k = p~/~

The probability current for the incoming particles is given by

~k 2
J~in = A (31)
µ
14 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (14/19)
For a beam of N particles, the particle flow through a surface
orthogonal to the beam is expressed as

~k 2
Φin = N | J~in |= N A (32)
µ
Under the action of this plane wave, in analogy with the Huygens
principle, a scattering centre becomes a source of spherical
standing waves

The total wave function will be the sum of a plane wave rep-
resenting the beam and a spherical wave representing the scattered
particles

Consider feeble interactions that make only a small fraction of the

incoming beam to be scattered out

In this case, the wave function of the beam is approximately the

same before and after the scattering
15 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (15/19)

Therefore for negative and positive ~k.~r the total wave function can
be expressed as
" #
exp(i ~k.~r )
ψ(~r ) = A exp(i ~k.~r ) + f (θ, φ) (33)
r
f (θ, φ) is called the scattering amplitude

The flow of scattered particles is given by the probability current of

the second term, which is given as

~k | f (θ, φ) |2 2
Φout = N | J~out |= N A (34)
µ r2
If the scattering amplitude f (θ, φ) is known, it can be used to
calculate the differential cross section for the scattering process

16 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (16/19)

Since we are considering elastic scattering by fixed scattering

centres, the kinetic energy of the projectiles will be conserved in
the process

In this case, the energy distribution of the outcoming particles will

be trivially a Dirac δ, and we will be only interested on their
angular distribution

From the definition of the cross section, we have

d 2 Nout dσ
= Φin NB (35)
dt dΩ dΩ
Nout is the number of scattered particles and NB is the number of
targets

Consider a single scattering centre, NB = 1

17 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (17/19)
At a distance r , the rate of scattered particles is connected to the
flow by

d 2 Nout d 2 Nout 2
2 d Nout
= r2 = r = r 2 Φout (36)
dt dΩ dt r 2 dΩ dt dΣ
From Eqns (32), (34) and (35)

dσ Φout
= r2 =| f (θ, φ) |2 (37)
dΩ Φin
Density of State

For a quantum system, we define ρ(E )dE as the number of states

of energy between E and E + dE ; where ρ(E ) is the density of
states

In an N-dimensional system, the energy is a function of N quantum

numbers (n1 , ..., nN ) related to the coordinate system in use
18 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (18/19)

For example, for an isotropic system in a 3-dimensional system in

cartesian coordinates (nx , ny , nz ), the relation has to be spherically
symmetric, e.g.,
q
E ∝ n = nx2 + ny2 + nz2 (38)
In this case

ρ(E )dE = dnx dny dnz (39)

In the case of a plane wave, ϕ(~r ) = A exp(i ~k.~r ) normalised on a
cubic box of side L,

~2 k 2
 
2πnx 2πny 2πnz
E= , L= , , (40)
2m L L L

19 / 31
Quantum Theory of Particle Scattering Particles (19/19)

In this case

L3 3 ~
ρ(E )dE = dnx dny dnz = d k (41)
(2π)3
For a unit box (L = 1) in the natural units (~ = c = 1), we have

d 3 p~
ρ(E )dE = (42)
(2π)3
Also

L3 2
ρ(E )dE = k dk dΩ (43)
(2π)3

L3 2 dk m k L3
ρ(E ) = k dΩ = dΩ (44)
(2π)3 dE 8π 3 ~2

20 / 31
The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation (1/6)
We reduced the problem of elastic scattering between two particles
to the resolution of a time-independent Schrödinger equation

We will demonstrate that the solution of the Schrödinger equation

for a scattering problem assumes the form in Eqn (33), and will
extract a formal expression for the scattering amplitude f (θ, φ).

A series expansion of this formal expression will be given and the

first-order solution discussed.

Integral form of Schrödinger Equation

In the scattering problem, the Schrödinger equation for a particle is

solved:
2
 
2∇
−~ + V (~r ) ψ(~r ) = E ψ(~r ) (45)
2µ
The boundary condition is that the wave function is a plane wave
at large distances from the scattering centre
21 / 31
The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation (2/6)

Eqn (45) can be expressed in the form

 2 2µ
∇ + k 2 ψ(~r ) = 2 V (~r )ψ(~r )

(46)
~
The general solution to Eqn (46) can be written as

ψ(~r ) = ϕ(~r ) + ψSC (~r ) (47)

ϕ(~r ) is the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous
equation, i.e., the Helmotz equation
 2
∇ + k 2 ϕ(~r ) = 0

(48)
In Eqn (47) ψSC (~r ) is a particular solution of the inhomogeneous
equation.

Such a solution can be found with the Green’s function method

22 / 31
The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation (3/6)
0
The Green’s function G◦ (~r , ~r ) for the Helmotz operator, i.e. the
solution of
0 0
∇2 + k 2 G◦ (~r , ~r ) = δ(~r − ~r )
 
(49)
is given by
0 1 0
G◦ (~r , ~r ) = − 0 exp(ik | ~r − ~r |) (50)
4π | ~r − ~r |
The particular solution of Eq. (46) is therefore
Z
0 2µ 0 0 0
ψSC (~r ) = G◦ (~r , ~r ) 2 V (~r )ψ(~r )d 3~r (51)
~
It can be shown that

0
d 3~r
Z
1 2µ 0 0 0
ψ(~r ) = ϕ(~r ) − 0 exp(ik | ~r − ~r |)V (~r )ψ(~r ) (52)
4π ~2 | ~r − ~r |
23 / 31
The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation (4/6)

Eqn( 52) is the integral form of the Schrödinger equation, which is

called the Lippmann-Schwinger equation

Consider a particle with incoming

wave vector ~k scattered elastically
by a potential V (~r ) acting over a
limited region of space

The outcoming wave vector

~k 0 = k(~r /r ) is observed by a
detector D at large distance at a
position ~r

Of interested is the form of the wave function at | ~r | much larger

0 0
than the distances | ~r | for which V (~r ) is significantly different
from zero
24 / 31
The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation (5/6)

We can consider the integral in Eq. (52) to get significant

0
contributions only over a volume where | ~r || ~r |

Considering this assumption

0
0 ~r .~r
| ~r − ~r |∼ r − (53)
r
And
1 1
0 ∼ (54)
| ~r − ~r | r
Eqn (52) can be expressed as
Z
1 2µ 1 ikr k 0 0 0 0
ψ(~r ) = ϕ(~r ) − e e−i r ~r .~r V (~r )ψ(~r )d 3~r (55)
4π ~2 r
The second term goes to zero as r → ∞

25 / 31
The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation (6/6)
Therefore, the boundary condition of having a plane incoming
wave at large distances can be satisfied by choosing, among the
solutions of the Helmotz equation, the plane wave
~
ϕ(~r ) = A ei k.~r (56)
The solution of the Lippmann-Schwinger equation for the
scattering problem at large distances is then in the form
Z
i~ 1 2µ 1 ikr k 0 0 0 0
ψ(~r ) = A ek.~
r
− 2
e e−i r ~r .~r V (~r )ψ(~r )d 3~r (57)
4π ~ r

eikr
 
i~
k.~
r
ψ(~r ) = A e + f (θ, φ) (58)
r
where
Z
µ ~ 0 .~ 0 0 0 0
f (θ, φ) = e−i k r
V (~r )ψ(~r )d 3~r (59)
2π~2 A
26 / 31
The Born Approximation (1/5)

The First Order Born Approximation

Consider weaker feeble interactions so that only a small fraction of

the beam is scattered

In this case it is expected that the total wave function φ(~r ) will
differ only slightly from the incoming wave ϕ(~r ))

Therefore, at a first order of approximation, we can replace φ(~r )

with ϕ(~r ) in Eq. (52); and this is called Born approximation

At large distances, it allows to get a solution of the scattering

problem as

Z
i~ A 2µ 1 ikr ~0 .r~0 ~ ~0
ψ(~r ) = A e k.~
r
− e e−i k V (r~0 )ei k.r d 3 r~0 (60)
4π ~2 r

27 / 31
The Born Approximation (2/5)

If we consider
Z
µ ~0
f (θ, φ) = − ei q~ .r V (r~0 )d 3 r~0 ≡ V̂ (~
q) (61)
2π~2
~ = (~k − k~0 ) and ~~
q q = ~(~k − k~0 ) is the momentum transfer

28 / 31
Cross section calculation (3/5)

The Fermi’s golden rule

From Eqn (60) we can write

Z
µ 1 ~0 .r~0 ~ ~0
f (θ, φ) = − Ae−i k V (r~0 )Aei k.r d 3 r~0 (62)
2π~2 A2
µ 1
f (θ, φ) ≡ − hϕf | V | ϕi i (63)
2π~2 A2
Mfi ≡ hϕf | V | ϕi i is called the transition matrix element of the
interaction V between the initial and final states ϕI and ϕf

Therefore

dσ µ2 1
=| f (θ, φ) |2 = 2 4 4 | Mfi |2 (64)
dΩ 2π ~ A

29 / 31
Cross section calculation (4/5)
Now consider the scattering by a single target particle. From the
definition of cross section and from Eqn (37) we get

dNout dσ ~|~k| 2 µ2 1
= Φin =N A | Mfi |2 (65)
dt dΩ dΩ µ 2π 2 ~4 A4
It can be shown that
dNout 2π ρ(E )
=N | Mfi |2 (66)
dt dΩ ~ dΩ
Therefore the scattering rate per incoming particle, into the solid
angle element dΩ is given by

1 dNout 2π
Γfi = dΩ = | Mfi |2 ρ(E ) (67)
N dt dΩ ~
Eqn (67) is know as the Fermi’s Golden Rule, and it has a wider
validity, that emerges when quantum transitions from an initial to
a final state are studied in a time-dependent quantum perturbation
theory
30 / 31
Cross section calculation (5/5)

In general, the probability per unit time for a quantum transition

from an initial state | ii to the final state | f i as an effect of the
interaction Hamiltonian Hi is given by
2π 2π
Γfi = | Mfi |2 ρ(E ) = | hf | Hi | ii |2 (68)
~ ~

31 / 31