MODULE - 2

SCIENTIFIC BASIS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

HEART

Heart is a great pumping [Link] maintaining circulation throughout the body. Heart is a cone
shape muscular organ situated in the [Link]’s almost a size of one’s closed fist and weight of
the heart usually is 300g.

ARTERIES

Arteries are carrying blood from the heart to the capillaries. It’s progressively smaller
becoming [Link] it’s made smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. Aorta is the
largest artery in the human body. Only exception is pulmonary artery which transports
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

VEINS

Veins are carrying under low pressure of blood from the capillaries to the heart. It’s
progressively small veins are called venules. And it’s made by thin fibrous walls compared to
arteries. Arteries have one-way valve at regular intervals to prevent back flow of blood. The
pulmonary vein transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart; all other veins carry
deoxygenated blood.

THE VASCULAR SYSTEM

The Vascular or circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels such as arteries,
veins and capillaries. The prime purpose of vascular system is the transport and exchange of
materials. They are; oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, drugs, heat, metabolic waste
products and protective white cells. Heart is the chief organ of vascular system and act as
central pump. Left ventricle chamber contraction of the heart pumps pure blood to aorta. Which
divided into arteries, arteries are further divided into arterioles, which further divided into
capillaries. Capillaries, which is the exchange of nutrients and gases takes place.

Nutrients and oxygen are supplied to the tissues and from tissues carbon dioxide and other
waste products are taken into the blood stream. That blood becomes impure and move through

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capillaries. This combines to form venules, venules combine together to form veins. Veins
combine to form superior and inferior vena cava. Impure blood through superior and inferior
vena cava returns to the right chamber of heart.

HEART RATE

Heart rate is defined as number of times the heart beats per minute. A healthy adult has a resting
heart rate of between 60 – 80 beats per minute, Where a well – condition individual tends to
have a resting heart rate around 40 – 60 beats per minute. Heart rate can be increased to
maximum of 200 beats per minute when exercised. The heart is a muscle and, can get stronger
when exercised, just as a skeletal muscle.

The average maximal heart rate is 220 – Age (Years).

BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood Pressure is the amount of Pressure exerted by the blood on the lateral walls of the artery.
The Pressure is normally stated with systolic pressure in the numerator (This is the pressure of
blood when it is being pumped in to the arteries by the left ventricle. The average is between
110-135mmHg (Millimetres of Mercury)) and the diastolic pressure in the denominator (This
is when the ventricle is in its relaxation phase. Average pressure at this point would be between
60-80mmHg).

Blood Pressure is usually 120/80 mm of Hg. During a bout of exercise the blood pressure can
go up to 160/90 mm of Hg.

BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)

Your ideal weight means, how much of your weight is lean body mass (muscle and bone) and
how much is body fat. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body
height, and is universally expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and
height in metres.

BMI Formula = Kg (kilograms)

m2 (Height in metres

The International Classification of adult underweight, overweight and obesity according

to BMI

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 Classification BMI(kg/m2)
Underweight <18.50
Severe thinness <16.00
Moderate thinness 16.00 - 16.99
Mild thinness 17.00 - 18.49

Normal range
18.50 - 24.99
Overweight ≥25.00
25.00 - 29.99
Pre-obese

Obese ≥30.00

Obese class I
30.00 - 34.99

Obese class II
35.00 - 39.99
Obese class III ≥40.00

STROKE VOLUME

The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle of the heart in one systole is called stroke
volume. The normal volume of blood is 70ml/ beat.

CARDIAC OUTPUT

The amount or volume of blood pumped out by the left ventricle of the heart in one minute is
called cardiac output.

Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume

(72 bpm x 70 ml/beat)

5040 ml/minute or nearly 5 liters of blood.

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON VASCULAR SYSTEM

⮚ Size of the heart increases due to exercise especially the left ventricle.

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⮚ Contraction ability of the heart increases.

⮚ Stroke volume of the heart increases. The stroke volume of untrained individual at rest
is about 55-75ml/beat where in trained athlete it is about 80-90ml/beat and in highly trained
athlete it is about 100-120ml/beat.

⮚ Heart rate:-The resting heart rate of highly trained individual may be less than or equal
to 40-60 beats/minute and that of untrained individual it is about 60-80 beats/minute. With
regular exercise one’s resting heart rate decreases and it shows the improvement of your cardio
vascular fitness.

⮚ Cardiac output:-Resting cardiac output of an athlete and non athlete are approximately
equal. But maximal level of exercise athlete’s cardiac output increases considerably. Maximal
cardiac output ranges from 14-20 liter/minute in untrained person, 25-35litre/minute in trained
athlete and 40litre/minute or more in highly trained athlete.

⮚ Blood flow:-The blood flow to the working muscles increased due to heavy training.

⮚ New capillaries are formed within the muscle fibres. The additional capillaries increase
the supply of oxygen and nutrients to tissues. The removal of waste products also quicker.

⮚ Recovery period becomes shorter.

⮚ Blood composition is changed. Haemoglobin level in blood increases. That is the

oxygen carrying capacity of blood increases.

⮚ Blood vessels become flexible and healthy which helps to regulate blood pressure.

⮚ Lowering the cholesterol level in blood. Reducing the CHD.

LUNGS

Lungs is Occupy most of the thoracic cavity. Its apex is near the clavicle (superior portion) and
base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion). Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures. Left
lung have two lobes and right lung three lobes.

RESPIRATION

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 Respiration is defined as ‘the exchange of gases between body tissue and external
environment’. The word respiration means breath again and again. Respiration takes place
by two separate process mainly internal and external respiration. Internal respiration means
exchange of gases between blood and body tissue. External Respiration means exchange of
gases between lungs and blood as it passes through the capillary.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system (or ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of

specific organs and structures used for the process of respiration in an organism. The
respiratory system is involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between an organism and the environment. Lungs are the respiratory organs where the
exchange of gases takes place. The air enters into the nose and mouth flows throw the trachea.
As it passes through the trachea it is humidified, filtered and adjust to the body temperature.
This process continuous as the inspired air passes through the bronchus that divides from
trachea to enter into right and left lungs. The bronchus is further subdivided into number of
bronchioles and finally the air reaches the alveoli which are the terminal branch of the
respiratory tract. There are about 3000 lakhs of alveoli in each lung. The alveoli have well thick
elastic valve and are surrounded by capillaries. The exchange of gases taken place between
these alveoli and blood capillaries by diffusion. The deoxygenated blood returned to the right
side of the heart is pump from right ventricle to the lungs. The blood passes into the pulmonary
capillary that surrounds the alveoli. The thin space between the epithelial membrane of the
alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillary allow rigid exchange of gases between the
alveoli and the blood.

FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

⮚ Exchange of O2 and CO2 between air and blood.

⮚ Regulate blood PH i.e. acid base balance.

⮚ Produce sound.

⮚ Regulate body temperature.

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⮚ Protection against micro organism.

RESPIRATORY RATE

It is also called breathing rate or breathing frequency. “Respiratory rate is the number of breath
per minute”. During exercise breathing rate increases when compared to the resting value.
Normal respiratory rate is 10-25 breath per minute. During exercise it may reach to 45 breaths
per minute.

TIDAL VOLUME

“The volume of air inspire or expire per breath is known as tidal volume”. It is approximately
500ml and during exercise the tidal volume may increase 5 to 6 times above the resting rate.

MINUTE VENTILATION (MV)

“The amount of air exhale or inhale in one minute is known as minute ventilation”.

It can be determined by;

MV = tidal volume X respiratory rate

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY

It is the entire volume of air that contain in all air passages or the volume of air in the lungs at
the end of maximal inspiration. During exercise the total lung capacity slightly decreases. This
happens due to the increase of pulmonary blood flow. This increase the amount of blood in the
pulmonary capillary and this force reduce the available gas volume space.

VITAL CAPACITY

It is defined as” the largest volume of air that can be exhale after a deepest possible
inhalation”. Vital capacity is measured with the help of wet spyrometer.

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The exercise and training induce a greater change in respiratory system. They are as follows;

⮚ The strength and endurance of the respiratory muscle is significantly increased.

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⮚ Tidal volume increases.

⮚ Minute ventilation increases.

⮚ Lungs volume increases.

⮚ Regular exercise may result in an increased vital capacity.

⮚ A larger diffusion capacity is obtained in the athletes than non athletes during rest and
exercise.

⮚ Efficiency of gaseous exchange improved.

⮚ Increase the area of exchange of gases.

⮚ Increase the surface area of the alveoli and surface tension of the alveoli.

⮚ Reduce the thickness of alveolar membrane. This help in faster exchange of gases.

⮚ Ability to function at low oxygen levels: Since athletes are used to performing at
Oxygen debt, their capacity to continue exercise is far greater than non athletes. The athletes
can also perform exercise anaerobic ally for a longer time.

⮚ Activates Unused Alveoli: Regular exercise activates the unused alveolus, because
much amount of oxygen is required for the prolonged exercise of daily routine.

TYPES OF EXERCISE

Exercises are generally grouped into three types depending on the overall effect they have on
the human body:

⮚ Aerobic exercises, such as cycling, walking, running, hiking, and playing tennis, focus
on increasing cardiovascular endurance.
⮚ Anaerobic exercises, such as weight training, increase short-term muscle strength.
⮚ Flexibility exercises such as stretching improve the range of motion of muscles and
joints.

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AEROBIC EXERCISE

Aerobic (or cardiovascular exercise, a term attributed to this kind of exercise because of its
various benefits in cardiovascular health) refers to exercise that involves or improves oxygen
consumption by the body. Aerobic means "with oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen in the
body's metabolic or energy-generating process. Many types of exercise are aerobic, and by
definition are performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time. This
intensity can vary from 50-80% of maximum heart rate.

There are various types of aerobic exercise. In general, aerobic exercise is one performed at a
low to moderate level of intensity over a long period of time. For example, running a long
distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not.

Benefits of Aerobic exercise:

⮚ Stronger heart: the heart muscle is strengthened and enlarged, to improve its pumping
efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate.
⮚ Increase of the total number of red blood cells: in the body, to facilitate transport of
oxygen throughout the body.
⮚ Improved breathing: the muscles involved in respiration are strengthened, to facilitate
the flow of air in and out of the lungs.
⮚ Improved muscle health: Aerobic exercise stimulates the growth of tiny blood vessels
(capillaries) in muscles. This helps our bodies more efficiently deliver oxygen to muscles, can
improve overall circulation and reduce blood pressure and remove irritating metabolic waste
products such as lactic acid from the muscles.
⮚ Weight loss: Combined with a healthy diet and appropriate strength training, aerobic
exercise may help lose weight.
⮚ Disease reduction: Extra weight is a contributing factor to conditions such as heart
disease, high blood pressure, stroke, diabetes and some forms of cancer. As weight loss occurs,
the risk of developing these diseases decreases. In addition, weight-bearing aerobic exercise,
such as walking, can reduce the risk of osteoporosis and its complications. Low-impact aerobic
exercises, such as swimming, cycling and pool exercises, can help keep fit in those who have
arthritis, without putting excessive stress on joints.

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⮚ Improved immune system: People who exercise regularly are less susceptible to minor
viral illnesses such as colds and flu. It is possible that aerobic exercise helps activate your
immune system and prepares it to fight off infection.
⮚ Improved mental health: Regular aerobic exercise releases endorphins, our bodies’
natural painkillers. Endorphins also reduce stress, depression and anxiety.
⮚ Increased stamina: Exercise may make us feel tired in the short term, i.e., during and
right after the activity, but over the long term it will increase stamina and reduce fatigue.

ANAEROBIC EXERCISE

Anaerobic exercise is the type of exercise that enhances power and builds muscle mass.
Muscles trained under anaerobic conditions develop differently, leading to greater performance
in short duration, high intensity activities, which last up to about 2 minutes.

The most common form of anaerobic exercise is strength exercise. Strength exercise is the use
of resistance to muscular contraction to build the strength, anaerobic endurance and size of
skeletal muscles. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common of
which are weight and resistance exercise.

Benefits of Anaerobic Exercise:

⮚ Improvement in overall health and well-being including increased bone, muscle, tendon
and ligament strength, toughness and endurance.
⮚ Improved joint function.
⮚ Reduced potential for injury resulting from weak muscles.
⮚ Improved cardiac function and elevated “good” HDL-cholesterol.
⮚ Maintain lean body mass (important for individuals attempting weight loss).
⮚ Decrease the risk of osteoporosis.
⮚ Develop coordination and balance.

BENEFITS OF EXERCISE:

⮚ Regular exercise makes the heart stronger and the lungs fitter: enabling the
cardiovascular system to deliver more oxygen to the body with every heartbeat and the
pulmonary system to increase the maximum amount of oxygen that the lungs can take in.

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⮚ Exercise lowers blood pressure, somewhat decreases the levels of total and low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (the bad cholesterol), and increases the level of high-density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (the good cholesterol). These beneficial effects in turn decrease
the risk of heart attack, stroke, and coronary artery disease.
⮚ Colon cancer and some forms of diabetes are less likely to occur in people who exercise
regularly.
⮚ Exercise makes muscles stronger, allowing people to do tasks that they otherwise might
not be able to do or to do them more easily.
⮚ Every physical task requires muscle strength and some degree of range of motion in
joints; regular exercise can improve both of these qualities.
⮚ Exercise stretches muscles and joints, which in turn can increase flexibility and help
prevent injuries. Exercise may also improve balance by increasing strength of the tissues
around joints and throughout the body, thus helping to prevent falls.
⮚ Weight-bearing exercise, such as brisk walking and weight training, strengthens bones
and helps prevent osteoporosis.
⮚ Exercise increases the body’s level of endorphins, chemicals in the brain that reduce
pain and induce a sense of well-being.
⮚ Exercise can help improve mood and energy levels and may even help relieve
depression.
⮚ Exercise may also help boost self-esteem by improving a person’s overall health and
appearance.
⮚ Exercise tends to increase appetite, reduce constipation, and promote quality sleep.

Note: The benefits of exercise diminish within months after a person stops exercising.

FITNESS

According to the Centres for Disease control and Prevention (CDC), Physical fitness is defined
as the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without undue fatigue, and with
ample energy to enjoy leisure-time pursuits and respond to emergencies. Fitness as per the
requirement may be broadly divided into two categories such as health related fitness and
skill/performance related fitness.

Physical fitness can be defined as a set of characteristics that are either health-related or skill-
related. It refers to your ability to perform physical tasks efficiently as it relates to a particular

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sport or your day-to-day activities. In addition to physical health, being physically fit helps
improve your mental, emotional, and social health.

HEALTH RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS

Health-related physical fitness is primarily associated with disease prevention and functional
health. Participating in regular health-related fitness helps you control your weight, prevents
diseases and illness, improves your mood, boosts energy, and promotes better sleep. It is made
up of five sections: cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance,
flexibility, and body composition.

⮚ Cardiovascular endurance is the ability of your heart, blood cells, and lungs to work
continuously for extended periods of time. This is how efficiently your body takes in,
transports, and uses oxygen while exercising. Having efficient heart and lungs leads to
increased energy throughout the day.
⮚ Muscular strength is the maximum amount of force a muscle can produce in a single
effort or how much you can lift in one attempt. Performing exercises that use your own body
weight, free weights, or weights on a machine are excellent ways to develop muscle strength.
Having muscular strength will ensure that you have the strength needed to lift a heavy object,
for example a box full of books.
⮚ Muscular endurance is your ability to contract your muscles several times without
excessive fatigue. Another way to think about it is the length of time your muscles can continue
to work before tiring. What this means is once you have picked up that heavy box of books,
you can then carry that box for a long period of time before you need to take a break.
⮚ Flexibility is the range of motion that your joints have during movement. Maintaining
flexibility can improve your performance in physical activities in addition to decreasing your
risk of injuries by helping your joints move through their full range of motion, therefore,
allowing your muscles to work most effectively. Stretching and yoga can be done to help
improve your flexibility.
⮚ Body composition is the ratio of water, bone, muscle, and fat in the body. A healthy
body composition indicates that you may have less risk of developing obesity-related diseases,
such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and even some cancers. Two of the ways to measure
body composition are body mass index, (BMI), which is a measure of body fat based on height
and weight, and the skin fold test, which measures total fat percentages by measuring the layer
of fat that is directly under the skin.

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SKILL-RELATED PHYSICAL FITNESS

Skill-related physical fitness is the ability to perform during games and sports; it is also called
performance fitness. This type of physical fitness is important for performing the more
technical aspects of many sports. There are six skill-related physical fitness sections: agility,
balance, coordination, power, strength and speed.

Agility is the ability to change and control the direction and position of your body while
maintaining a constant, rapid motion. A good example would be tennis, where a person is
moving around the court quickly to reach the ball in time.

Coordination is the integration of the nervous system and muscular system to produce correct,
graceful and harmonious body movements. Examples are such as gymnastics, golf, baseball,
karate, soccer in which hand- eye and foot-eye movements must be integrated.

Endurance is the ability to resist fatigue and is also known as cardiovascular fitness. For
example 3kms jogging requires cardio vascular fitness. It helps with fat metabolism, improve
delivery of oxygen, faster removal of waste products and decreased levels of stress. Endurance
is of two types:

1. Speed endurance: It is the ability to maintain speed even under conditions of fatigue.
2. Strength endurance: Is the ability of the muscle to exert strength even under the
condition of fatigue.

Power is the combination of speed and strength. Example are such as shooting in football
requires power, smashing in badminton and tennis.

Strength is defined as the ability of a muscle to exert a force to overcome a resistance. It

enables us to maintain good posture, to avoid injuries and do activities efficiently. Strength is
of three types:

1. Maximum strength: Is the ability to exert maximum force against a resistance. It is

essential in games like power lifting, weightlifting, wrestling and judo.
2. Strength endurance: Is the ability of the muscle to exert strength even under the
condition of fatigue. Examples are such as repeated running and kicking in football, swimming-
repeated the stroke.

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3. Explosive strength: The ability to produce maximum force in the shortest time. It is
the combination of speed and strength. Jumping, shot putting, spiking and start of a sprint.

Speed is the ability to move a body part in minimum possible time. For example, when playing
golf, the speed of your arms and upper body in creating the swing are vital in driving the ball
over a long distance. Types of speed are:

1. Reaction Speed: It is the time taken to initiate a response to a given stimulus. For
example starting in race with the gun sound.
2. Movement speed: It is the ability to move limbs as fast as possible.
3. Acceleration speed: It is the ability to increase the speed.
4. Sprint Speed: It is the ability to run at maximum speed.
5. Speed endurance: It is the ability to maintain speed even under conditions of fatigue.

WARM UP

“A warm up generally consists of a gradual increase in intensity of physical activity, its acts
as a pulse raiser, a joint mobility exercise and stretching”.

Two types of Warm up:

✔ General Warm up: Slow jog, Joint exercise and stretching, Short Sprints(20mtr). (5 to
10 minutes)

✔ Specific Warm up: After general warm up, constitutes exercise specific to the
particular sport or game.

(10 to 15 minutes)

EFFECTS OF WARM UP

⮚ Increases heart rate and enables oxygen in the blood to travel with greater speed.

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⮚ Increases the production of synovial fluid located between the joints to reduce fiction
and allows joints to move more efficiently.
⮚ Dilation of capillaries enables oxygen in the blood to travel at a higher volume.
⮚ Increase of temperature in the muscles which leads to greater extensibility and
elasticity of muscle fibres.
⮚ Increase the force and speed of muscle contraction.
⮚ Decreased viscosity of blood and enables oxygen in the blood to travel with greater
speed.
⮚ Encourages the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin.
⮚ Increase of muscle metabolism by supply of energy through breakdown of glycogen.
⮚ Increase in speed of nerve impulse conduction.
⮚ Remove lactic acid.

COOL DOWN

Cooling down/Warming down is an easy exercise that will allow body to gradually transact
from a physical and mental exertion state to a resting or near-resting state”.
Cooling down involves:-
✔ Slow jogs/easy jogs
✔ Stretching
✔ Rehydration

EFFECTS OF COOLING DOWN

1. Helps to remove lactic acid.

2. It allows the heart rate to return to its resting rate gradually.
3. Help to reduce the oxygen debt.
4. Stops blood from pooling within the veins.

OXYGEN DEBT

Oxygen debt is defined as the deficiency of the oxygen during exercise especially strenuous
exercise”. Oxygen debt is also known as excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).

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For example: After a strenuous exercise deficiency of oxygen or oxygen debt is repaid with
higher rate of breathing when he/she discontinues the activity.

SECOND WIND

Second wind is a phenomenon in distance running, such as marathons or road running (as well
as other sports), whereby an athlete who is too out of breath and tired to continue suddenly
finds the strength to press on at top performance with less exertion.

Second wind is a person's ability to breathe freely during exercise, after having been out of
breath.

Body Type

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Ectomorph Body Type : 1
An ectomorph is a typical skinny type. Ecto’s have a light build with small joints and lean
muscle. Usually ectomorph’s have long thin limbs with stringy muscles. Shoulders tend to be
thin with little width.

Typical traits of an Ectomorph:

● Small “delicate” frame and bone structure
● Classic “hardgainer”
● Flat chest
● Small shoulders
● Thin
● Lean muscle mass

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● Finds it hard to gain weight
● Fast metabolism

Ectomorphs find it very hard to gain weight. They have a fast metabolism which burns up
calories very quickly. Ecto’s need a huge amount of calories in order to gain weight. Workouts
should be short and intense focusing on big muscle groups. Supplements are definitely
recommended. Ectomorphs should eat before bed to prevent muscle catabolism during the
night. Generally, ectomorphs can lose fat very easily which makes cutting back to lean muscle
easier for them.

Mesomorph Body Type : 2

A mesomorph has a large bone structure, large muscles and a naturally athletic physique.
Mesomorphs are the best body type for bodybuilding. They find it quite easy to gain and lose
weight. They are naturally strong which is the perfect platform for building muscle.

Typical traits on a Mesomorph

● Athletic
● Generally hard body
● Well defined muscles
● Rectangular shaped body
● Strong
● Gains muscle easily
● Gains fat more easily than ectomorphs
The mesomorph body type responds the best to weight training. Gains are usually seen very
quickly, especially for beginners. The downside to mesomorphs is they gain fat more easily
than ectomorphs. This means they must watch their calorie intake. Usually a combination of
weight training and cardio works best for mesomorphs.

Endomorph Body Type : 3

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The endomorph body type is solid and generally soft. Endomorphs gain fat very easily. Endo’s
are usually of a shorter build with thick arms and legs. Muscles are strong, especially the upper
legs. Endomorphs find they are naturally strong in leg exercises like the squat.

Typical traits of an Endomorph

● Soft and round body
● Gains muscle and fat very easily
● Is generally short
● "Stocky" build
● Round physique
● Finds it hard to lose fat
● Slow metabolism
● Muscles not so well defined

When it comes to training endomorphs find it very easy to gain weight. Unfortunately, a large
portion of this weight is fat not muscle. To keep fat gain to a minimum, endomorphs must
always train cardio as well as weights. Usually supplements may not be needed as long as the
person has a high protein intake in their diet.

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