INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

BIOLOGY

TOPIC : HUMAN EVOLUTION

PROJECT BY : [Link] Selva

 INTRODUCTION
Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people
originated from apelike ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the
physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from
apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six
million years.
One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to
walk on two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago. Other
important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex
brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for
language -- developed more recently. Many advanced traits --
including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural
diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.
Humans are primates. Physical and genetic similarities show that
the modern human species, Homo sapiens, has a very close
relationship to another group of primate species, the apes. Humans
and the great apes (large apes) of Africa -- chimpanzees (including
bonobos, or so-called “pygmy chimpanzees”) and gorillas -- share a
common ancestor that lived between 8 and 6 million years ago.
Humans first evolved in Africa, and much of human evolution
occurred on that continent. The fossils of early humans who lived
between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa.
Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species
of early humans. Scientists do not all agree, however, about how
these species are related or which ones simply died out. Many early
human species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living
descendants. Scientists also debate over how to identify and classify
particular species of early humans, and about what factors
influenced the evolution and extinction of each species.
Early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia probably
between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They entered Europe
somewhat later, between 1.5 million and 1 million years. Species of
modern humans populated many parts of the world much later. For
instance, people first came to Australia probably within the past
60,000 years and to the Americas within the past 30,000 years or so.
The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first civilizations
occurred within the past 12,000 years.

Paleoanthropology :
Paleoanthropology is the scientific study of human evolution.
Paleoanthropology is a subfield of anthropology, the study of human
culture, society, and biology. The field involves an understanding of
the similarities and differences between humans and other species
in their genes, body form, physiology, and behavior.
 ORIGIN
Our evolutionary history is written into our genome.
The human genome looks the way it does because of all
the genetic changes that have affected our ancestors.
The exact origin of modern humans has long been a
topic of debate.

Modern humans (Homo sapiens), the species that we

are, means ‘wise man’ in Latin. Our species is the only
surviving species of the genus Homo but where we came
from has been a topic of much debate. Modern humans
originated in Africa within the past 200,000 years and
evolved from their most likely recent common
ancestor, Homo erectus, which means ‘upright man’ in
Latin. Homo erectus is an extinct species of human that
lived between 1.9 million and 135,000 years ago.

Historically, two key models have been put forward to

explain the evolution of Homo sapiens. These are the
‘out of Africa’ model and the ‘multi-regional’ model. The
‘out of Africa’ model is currently the most widely
accepted model. It proposes that Homo sapiens evolved
in Africa before migrating across the world.

On the other hand, the ‘multi-regional’ model proposes

that the evolution of Homo sapiens took place in a
number of places over a long period of time. The
intermingling of the various populations eventually led
to the single Homo sapiens species we see today.

This is still very much an area of active research ,

however, current genomic evidence supports a single
‘out-of Africa’ migration of modern humans rather than
the ‘multi-regional’ model. Although, studies of
the genomes of the extinct hominids Neanderthals and
Denisovans suggest that there was some mixing of
genomes (1-3 per cent) with humans in Europe and
Asia. This interbreeding between two previously
separated populations is called ‘admixture’ and results
in a mixing of genes between the populations.
 STAGES OF
EVOLUTION
MAINLY CONSISTS OF THREE STAGES :

[A] APE FOSSILS

[B] PRE-HISTORIC MAN

[C] MODERN MAN

[A] APE FOSSILS:

1. Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus-
o About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and
Ramapithecus were existing.
o They were hairy and walked like gorillas and
chimpanzees.
o Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus
was more ape-like.
o Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in
Ethiopia and Tanzania.
[Link] – Fossils discovered from Shivalik Hills
in India.
[Link] – Fossils discovered from Kenya.
4. AUSTRALOPITHECUS – They lived in East African
Grasslands. According to the evidence, they hunted with
stone weapons but essentially ate fruit. It is considered
connecting link between apes and man.
Ape like characters:
 Less cranial capacity
 Thick hair growth
 U shaped jaw
 Larger and sharper teeth
Man like characters:
 Erect posture and bipedal
locomotion
 Forelimbs shorter than hind limbs
 Vertebral column with distinct lumbar curve
[B] Pre-Historic Man:
[Link] Habilis :
o The brain capacities were between 650-800cc.
o They probably did not eat meat.
o They were the makers of stone tools.

This species, one of the earliest

members of the genus Homo, has a
slightly larger braincase and smaller
face and teeth than in
Australopithecus or older hominin
species. But it still retains some ape-
like features, including long arms and a
moderately- prognathic face.

Its name, which means ‘handy man’, was given in 1964 because
this species was thought to represent the first maker of stone
tools. Currently, the oldest stone tools are dated slightly older
than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo.

2. Homo Erectus :
o About 1.5 mya, Homo erectus arose.
o Homo erectus had a large brain around 900cc.
o Homo erectus probably ate meat.

Early African Homo erectus fossils

(sometimes called Homo ergaster) are
the oldest known early humans to have
possessed modern human-like body
proportions with relatively elongated legs
and shorter arms compared to the size of
the torso. These features are considered
adaptations to a life lived on the ground.
Compared with earlier fossil humans,
note the expanded braincase relative to
the size of the face. The most complete
fossil individual of this species is known
as the ‘Turkana Boy’ – a well-preserved skeleton (though minus
almost all the hand and foot bones), dated around 1.6 million years
old . The appearance of Homo erectus in the fossil record is often
associated with the earliest handaxes, the first major innovation in
stone tool technology.
Early fossil discoveries from Java (beginning in the 1890s) and China
(‘Peking Man’, beginning in the 1920s) comprise the classic examples of
this species. Generally considered to have been the first species to have
expanded beyond Africa, Homo erectus is considered a highly variable
species, spread over two continents (it's not certain whether it reached
Europe), and possibly the longest lived early human species - about
nine times as long as our own species, Homo sapiens, has been around!
Also includes :
(a) Java Man – Homo erectus erectus
 Fossils found in 1891
 Omnivorous
 Cranial capacity – 800 to 1000 cc
 1st man who used fire

(b) Pecking Man – Homo erectus pekinesis

 W.C. Pei discovered fossils from
China
 They used fire for cooking meat and
protection
 Cranial capacity – 850 to 1300 cc
 They were omnivorous

(c ) Heidelberg Man --
 First fossil recovered from
Heidelberg in Germany.
 This man had evolved as a branch
from main line of evolution but
soon got extinct.
3. Homo sapiens :
Homo erectus were succeeded by early Homo sapiens, which
were described under different names Homo neanderthalensis,
Homo heildelbergensis etc. But, since they are grouped
under Homo sapiens.
Subspecies of Homo sapiens are:
(a) Neanderthal Man – Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

 They lived near East and

central Asia between 100,000
to 40,000 years back.
 Fossil was discovered by
Fulhrott in Neanderthal valley
of Germany.
 Cranial capacity – 1400cc
 They used hides to protect
their bodies made with skin of
animals.
 They buried their dead and
believed in immortality of souls.
 They lived in huts.
 Omnivorous in nature.
 Development of speech and language started at
this stage
(b) Cromagnon Man – Homo sapiens fossillis

 Origin and evolution 50,000 to

10,000 years ago
 Fossils discovered by Mac.
Gregor from Cromagnon rocks
of France
 Cranial capacity—1650cc
 They lived in caves
 Omnivorous
 They had large forehead and
well developed chin
 Semi circular jaw and orthognathus face
 Speech and language were developed in them
 They wore clothes of animal skin
 Domestication was started by this man
 They also painted beautiful paintings on cave
wall
 Hence pre-historic cave art started 18000 years
ago
[C] MODERN MAN:

Homo sapiens sapiens:

 During ice age between 75000 to
10000 years ago modern homo
sapiens arose
 It arose in Africa and moved
across continents and developed
into distinct races
(Caucasoid,Negroid,Mongoloid
and Australoid)
 This is the man today having the
brain capacity of 1300 to 1600 cc
 This man has well developed
chin,well developed speech centre,smaller forehead and
reduced body hair
 Semi circular jaw and orthognathous face
 It is omnivorous by nature
 Agriculture was also started by this man 10,000 years
back
 Human settlements started
 CONCLUSION
The rate of evolution for our species has continuously accelerated since the
end of the last ice age, roughly 10,000 years ago.
For instance, our larger and denser populations have made it far easier
for contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis, small pox, the plague, and
influenza to rapidly spread through communities and wreak havoc. This
has exerted strong selection for individuals who were fortunate to have
immune systems that allowed them to survive. This is mostly due to the
fact that our human population has explosively grown and moved into
new kinds of environments, including cities, where we have been
subject to new natural selection pressures. There also has been a
marked change in diet for most people since the end of the last ice age. It
is now less varied and predominantly vegetarian around the globe with
a heavy dependence on foods made from cereal grains. It is likely that
the human species has been able to adapt to these and other new
environmental pressures because it has acquired a steadily greater
genetic diversity. A larger population naturally has more mutations
adding variation to its gene pool simply because there are more people.
This happens even if the mutation rate per person remains the same.
However, the mutation rate may have actually increased because we
have been exposed to new kinds of man- made environmental pollution
that can cause additional mutations. It is not clear what all of the
consequences of the environmental and behavioral changes for humans
have been. However, it does appear that the average human body size
has become somewhat shorter over the last 10,000 years, and we have
acquired widespread immunity to the more severe effects of some
diseases such as measles and influenza. It remains to be seen how we
will use this technology in the future and whether we will continue as a
species, evolve into another species, or become extinct as many groups
have before us.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 PHOTO SOURCE - [Link]

 MATERIAL SOURCE - [Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]