Chapter Six

Concept of Mole and Chemical Counting

Chemistry basically deals with two kinds of analysis- qualitative analysis and
quantitative analysis. Identification of an element and its properties is
qualitative analysis whereas determining the amount of a substance is known as
quantitative analysis. Quantitative analysis deals with calculations which
altogether are denoted by the term chemical counting. These calculations
usually use mole as the unit to determine the amount of a substance. In this
chapter, we will discuss what is mole, how to use mole in calculations, how to
determine the cubic measurement from mole etc.
By the end of the chapter, we will be able to:
• do the simple mathematical calculations using the concept of mole

• prepare solutions of certain concentration

• determine the percent composition of elements present in the compounds

using the given data

• determine the empirical and atomic formula using the percent

composition

• write chemical equations and balance the equation using symbol, formula
and valency of elements and radicals

• solve mass related mathematical problems of reactant and product from

the quantitative significance of chemical reaction

• calculate the percent composition of lattice water of copper sulphate

• do measurement of chemical substances using balance

6.1 Mole
The word mole is the unit of any chemical measurement. Suppose,

12 nos of O2 = 1 dozen of O2

100 nos of O2 = 1 hundred of O2

1000 nos of O2 = 1 thousand of O2

Similarly, 6.02 × 1023 nos O2 = 1 mole O2

1 mole atom contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms

1 mole molecule contains 6.02 × 1023 molecules

1 mole ion contains 6.02 × 1023 ions

Therefore, the number 6.02 × 1023 is used in the case with atoms, molecules
and ions etc. This number is called Avogadro number.

The amount of a chemical substance that contains as many as the Avogadro

number (6.02 × 1023 ) of molecules, atoms or ions is called the mole of the
substance. For example, 12 grams of C contains 6.02 × 1023 number of C
atoms. Therefore,

12 grams of C = 1 mole C atom.

Again, 18 grams of H2O contains 6.02×1023 number of H2O molecules.

Therefore,

18 grams of H2O = 1 mole H2O

The expression of atomic mass of atoms and the molecular mass of molecules
into gram unit is called one mole of a chemical substance.

The Process of Determining the Molecular Mass of a Molecule

The summation of atomic mass of all atoms that constitute a molecule denotes
the molecular mass of the molecule. Cl2 molecule, for example, has two Cl
atoms..

Therefore, the molecular mass of Cl2 = atomic mass of Cl × 2 = 2 × 35.5 =

71
One mole Cl2 = 71g Cl2

A NaCl molecule has 1 Na atom and 1 Cl atom. Therefore, the molecular mass
of NaCl= atomic mass of Na+ atomic mass of Cl= 23 + 35.5 = 58.5

One mole of NaCl = 58.5 g NaCl

CuSO4.5H2O contains 01 Cu, 01 S, 09 0 and 10 H atoms. Therefore, the

molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O = atomic mass of Cu × 1 + atomic mass of S
× 1 + atomic mass of H × 10 = 1 × 63.5 + 1 × 32 + 9 × 16 + 10 × 1 = 249.5

A mole of CuSO4.5H2O = 249.5 g CuSO4.5H2O

Examples

Problem: what is the mass of 1 H2O molecule?

Solution: We know, 1 mole H2O = 18 g H2O = 6.02×1023 no of H2O molecule

Here, the molecular mass of 6.02×1023 H2O molecules = 18 g

18
Therefore, the mass of 1 H2O molecule = g = 2.99 × 10-23 g
6.02×1023

Problem: How many H2SO4 molecules are there in 1g H2SO4?

Solution: We know, 1 mole H2SO4 = 98 g H2SO4 = 6.02×1023 no of H2SO4

molecule

Here 98 g H2SO4 = 6.02×1023 no of H2SO4 molecules

6.02×1023
Therefore, the mass of 1g H2SO4 = g = 6.02×1023 H 2SO4 molecules.
98

Problem: Calculate the mole of H2O present in 5g H2O

Solution: We know, 1 mole H2O = 18 g H2O = 6.02×1023 no of H2O molecule

Here 18 g H2O = 1mole H2O

1
1g H2O = mole H2O
18

1×5
Therefore, 5g H2O = = 0.277 mole H2O
18
Individual Task: Determine the number of H, S and O atoms in 1g H2SO4.

6.1.1 Molar Volume gas

The volume that 1 mole of a gaseous substance occupies is called the molar
volume of that gas. 0° C temperature and 1 atm pressure together is called the
standard temperature and pressure or standard condition. The volume of 1 mole
gas in this standard condition is 22.4 liter.

If n = mole number

w = mass m gram

V = Volume in liter

N = Number of molecules M = Molecular mass

𝑤
n=
𝑀

𝑉
or, n =
22.4

𝑁
or, n =
6.02×1023

Example

Problem: How many molecules are there in 1litre CO2 gas in standard
temperature and pressure?

Solution: 1 mole CO2 =44 g CO2 = 6.02×1023 no CO2 molecules = 22.4 liter
CO2 gas in standard temperature and pressure

In standard temperature and pressure 22.4 liter CO2 gas contains =6.02×1023 no
CO2 gas molecules
6.02×1023
Therefore, 1 liter CO2 gas contains = = 2.69 × 1022 molecules
22

Individual Task: How many H atoms are there in 5 liter CH4 gas in standard
condition?
Problem: What is the volume of 5 mole CO2 gas in standard temperature and
pressure?

Solution: Here, it is given, mole n= 5 we require to find out volume V = ?

𝑉
We know n =
22.4

𝑉
Or, 5==
22.4

Therefore V= 5×22.4 =112 liter

Individual Task: What is the volume of 5 CO2 molecules in standard

condition?
Problem: What is the volume of 10g Hydrogen molecules in standard
condition?
Solution: Here, it is given, mass w= 10g, molecular mass of H 2, M = 2. We
require to find out volume V =?

𝑊 𝑉
n= =
𝑀 22.4

10 𝑉
= =
2 22.4

Therefore V = 22.4 × 22.4 liter = 112 liter

6.1.2 Mole and Molecular Formula

There is a relation between mole and molecular formula. The quantity in gram
determined when we express the molecular mass of a substance gotten from its
molecular formula is called 1 mole of that substance. For example, molecular
formula of water is H2O and its molecular mass is 18. Therefore 18 gram is
called 1 gram molecular mass water or 1 mole water. It is clear here that, mole
is also the gram molecular mass.
Molecular formula provides some other information too. For example, in the
case with H2O :
1. H2O water
2. The formula of 1 molecule water is H2O
3. The formula of 1 mole water is H2O.
4. 1 molecule H2O contains 2 hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom.
5. 1 mole H2O molecule contains 2 mole hydrogen and 1 mole oxygen atoms.
6. In 1 mole H2O molecule, the mass of H atom is 1 × 2 = 2 g and the mass of O
atom is 16 × 1 = 16 g. Therefore, the total mass of 1 mole H 2O molecule is 2+
16 = 18g.
7. In 1 mole H2O molecule, the number of H atom is 6.02 × 10 23 × 2 = 1.20
× 1024 and the number of O atom is 6.02 × 10 23 × 1 = 6.023 × 1023 and the
number of H2O molecule is 6.02 × 10 23 .

6.1.3 Molar Solution

Suppose a solute is dissolved in a solvent. At a fixed temperature, if one mole
solute is dissolved in 1 liter solution, then that solution is called molar solution
or 1 molar solution. If2 mole solute is dissolved in 1 mole solution, that solution
is called 2 molar solution.
An example can make us clear about solute, solvent and solution. Take about
half a glass of water. Add some edible salt to the water and mix it with a spoon.
You will see the salt is no more visible in
the water after a while. This mix of salt and
water is a solution. Here water is the
solvent and salt is the solute. Liquids such
as water, acid, alcohol etc. are necessary in
preparing solutions. In this chapter, chiefly
we shall use water as the solvent. When
water is used as solvent in a solution is
called water solution.
Solution = Solute + Solvent
You may come across the terms Dilute
Solution and Concentrated Solution
frequently. 10 gram salt mixed in 250 mL
water is a solution. Again, 15 gram salt in 250 gram water is also a solution.
The one with lesser amount of salt is dilute solution while the other is
concentrated solution. Again, 10 gram salt is mixed in two glasses containing
250 mL and 200 mL water each. The solution containing more water is dilute
solution while the one with less water is concentrated solution. Similarly in the
laboratory, smaller amount of solute in a fixed amount of solvent creates dilute
solution and greater amount of solute in the same amount of solvent creates
concentrated solution. Actually, there is no specific rule to determine which is
dilute and which concentrated solution is.

The number of mole dissolved in every liter of solution at a certain temperature

is called the molarity of the solution. If 2 mole solute is dissolved in a one liter
solution at a fixed temperature, then the molarity of that solution is 2. When
there is 0.5 mole solute in 1 liter solution, that is semi-molar solution and when
that same 1 liter solution has 0.1 mole solute, that is called decimolar solution.
The molarity of a decimolar solution is 0.1 while 0.5 is the molarity of a
semimolar solution.

Preparation of Solutions with Different Molarity

There is necessity of preparing molar, semimolar and decimolar solutions in the

laboratory. It can be done easily following various steps. Firstly, you need to
select a volumetric flask. Secondly, you need to weigh the substance that you
are interested to prepare the solution of and put it in the flask. Thirdly, you need
to add some water and shake the flask to prepare the solution. Then, you need to
fill water to a certain mark in the flask. There is relationship in between
molarity of solution, volume of solution, mass and molecular mass of the solute.

Mass of solute in gram unit

=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ×𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 ×𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
1000

Here, if we take Mass of solute in gram unit = w

Molarity of solution = S

Volume of solution in millimeter unit = V

Molecular mass of solute = M

𝑆𝑉𝑀
Then w =
1000

To solve the molarity related problem, we can use the above equation.

Example:

Problem: How will you prepare 0.2 molar NaCl solution in a volumetric flask
of 250 mL?

Solution: Given, volume of solution V = 250 mL, molarity of solution S = 0.2

molar, molecular mass of NaCl = 23+ 35.5 = 58.5

Therefore, 1 mole NaCl = 58.5

0.2 molar NaCl solution in 1 liter or 1000 mL requires 58.5× 0.2 = 11.7 g
 11.7×250
250 mL solution requires = = 2.925 g
1000

Add 2.925 gram NaCl in a 250 mL volumetric flask. Pour 250 mL water inside
the flask. That will complete the preparation of 0.2 molar solution.

Alternative solution:
𝑆𝑉𝑀
We know, w =
1000

0.2×250×58.5
Therefore, w =
1000

= 2.925 g

Now, follow the procedure of adding the solute and solvent to complete the
preparation.

Problem: How much Na2CO3 is there in a 2 liter 0.1 molar Na2CO3 solution?

Solution: Molecular mass of Na2CO3 = 23× 2 + 12 16×3 = 106

Therefore, the amount of Na2CO3 necessary in a 1 liter 1 molar solution =106 g

The amount of Na2CO3 necessary in a liter 0.1 molar solution = 10.6g

The amount of Na2CO3 necessary in a 2 liter 0.1 molar solution = 10.6× 2g =

21.2g.

Alternative way,
𝑆𝑉𝑀
w=
1000

0.1×2000×106𝑔
w=
1000

w = 21.2 g
Problem: What is the molarity of the solution when there is 20 g Na 2CO3 in 250
mL solution?

Solution: Molecular mass of Na2CO3 = 23× 2 + 12 +16 × 3= 106

1 molarity in 1 liter solution requires 106 gram

106×250
1 molarity in 250 mL solution requires = 26.5
1000

26.5 g Na2CO3 in 250 mL makes the molarity 1 molar

1
1g Na2CO3 in 250 mL makes the molarity molar
26.5

1×20
20 g Na2CO3 in 250 mL makes the molarity = 0.75 molar
26.5

Alternative way,
𝑆𝑉𝑀
w=
1000

𝑆×250×106𝑔
20 =
1000

S = 0.75 molar

Problem: What is the volume of the solution in millimeter when 20g Na 2CO3 is
dissolved in 0.75 molar Na2CO3 solution?

Solution: Given here, S = 0.75 molar, w = 20g, M = 23×2 + 12+ 16 × = 106, V

=?

We know
𝑆𝑉𝑀
w=
1000

0.75×106𝑔
20 =
1000

𝑆𝑉𝑀
V =
1000

1000×20
20 =
0.75×106
= 250 mL

Problem: A 250 mL solution has 20g substance dissolved in it and its molarity
is 0.75. What is the molecular mass of the solute in the solution.

Solution: Given here, w= 20 g, V = 250 mL, S=0.7 molar, M=?

We know,
𝑆𝑉𝑀
w=
1000

0.75×250×𝑀
20 =
1000

1000×20
V = = 106
0.75×250

Problem: How will you prepare 200 mL semimolar Na2CO3 solution?

Solution: V = 200 mL, S = 0.5, M = 23× 2 + 16 × 3 = 106

We know,

Now, take 10.6g Na2CO3 in a pot and pour 200mL water in it. Thus we can
prepare the solution.

Individual Task

Task: Find out the molarity of the solution when there is 4g NaOH in a 100 mL
solution.

Task: Find out the molarity of the solution when there is 4 g HCl in a 100 mL
solution.

6.2 The Percentage Composition of Elements in Compounds

The gram measurement of an element present in a 100 gram compound is called
the percentage composition of that element. The molecular formula of a
compound is the source to determine the percentage composition of elements
various in the compound.

Percent composition of an element in a compound

𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡×𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠×100
= %
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

Example: The percent composition of H and Cl in HCl is shown below:

Molecular mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

In 36.5 gram HCl the amount of H = 1 gram

1
In l gram HCl the amount of H =
36.5

1×1000
In l000 gram HCl the amount of H = = 2.74 gram
36.5

So, the percent composition of H in HCl is 2.74%.

again,

In 36.5 gram HCl the amount of Cl = 35.5 gram

35.5
In lgram HCl the amount of Cl=
36.5

35.5×1000
In l000 gram HCl the amount of Cl = = 97.26 gram
36.5

So, the percent composition of Cl in HCl is 97.26 %.

It can also be calculated the percent composition of Cl is (100-2.74) = 97.26%

Example

Problem: Find out the percent composition of Hand O in H2O

Solution: The mass of 1 mole H2O = 2 + 16 = 18 gram

In 18 gram H2O the amount of H = 2 gram

 2
In 1 gram H2O the amount of H = gram
18

2×100
In 1000 gram H2O the amount of H == gram = 11.11 gram
18

So, the percent composition of H in HCL is 11.11%

Again, the percent composition of O is (100 – 11.11) = 88.89%

We can determine the same percent composition applying values m the formula
of percentage composition.

Percent composition of an element in a compound

𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ×𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠×100
=
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

The molecular mass of H2SO4 = (lx2 + 32xl + 16x4) = 98

Here, atomic mass of H is 1 and number of H atoms is 2

1×2×100
Therefore, the percent composition of H = % = 2.04%
98

Atomic mass of S is 32 and number of S atoms is 1

32×1×100
Therefore, the percent composition of S = % = 32.65%
98

Atomic mass of O is 16 and number of O atoms is 4

16×4×100
Therefore, the percent composition of O = % = 65.3%
98

Problem: Find out the percent composition of aluminum, sulfur and oxygen in
Al2(SO4)3

Solution:

The molecular mass of Al2(SO4)3 = 27× 2 + (32 × 1 + 16 × 4) × 3 = 342

27×2×100
The percent composition of Al = % = 15.78%
342

32×3×100
The percent composition of S = % = 28.07%
342

16×12×100
The percent composition of O= % = 56.14%
342
Do it Yourself

Task: Find out the percent composition of Na and Cl in NaCl.

6.2.1 Percent Composition and Empirical Formula

We are already familiar with the term Molecular Formula as we have learned
what it is and have applied it to determine the number of atoms of elements in a
molecule. The idea of empirical formula has been introduced to express the ratio
of various atoms in a molecule. For example, there are two H atoms and two 0
atoms in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) . Therefore, the ratio of the atoms in this
compound is 1:1. That means, the empirical formula of H2O2 is HO. The
formula that shows the ratio of the number of atoms of different elements
present in a molecule is called the empirical formula. We can easily determine
the empirical formula of a compound if we know the percent composition of
elements in it and its relative atomic mass.

Determining Empirical Formula from the Percent Composition

The steps required to determine empirical formula from the percent composition
are described below:

Step 1: The percent composition of the elements to be divided by its atomic

number.

Step 2: Use the smallest quotient to divide the other quotients and the multiply
these new quotients with a common nearest number to tum them into integers.

Step 3: Apply these integers to the right of respective symbol of elements. That
forms the empirical formula.

Step 4: Do not write anything if the integer gotten is 1.

Suppose, in a compound, the percent compositions of carbon and hydrogen are

92.31 % and 7.69% respectively.

Firstly, let's divide the percent compositions with their atomic numbers.
92.31
C= = 7.69
12

7.69
H= = 7.69
1
Now divide the quotients with the smallest of quotients:
7.69
C= =1
7.69

7.69
H= =1
7.69

Now write these values alongside the symbols of the elements and that gives
you the empirical formula. Thus, the empirical formula of this compound is
C1H1= CH.

Example

Problem: The percent composition of elements in a compound are given as H =

2.04%, S = 32.65% and O = 65.30%. Determine the empirical formula of the
compound.

Solution: First, we'll divide the percent composition of elements by respective

atomic mass:
1.04
H= =1
1

32.65
S= =1.02
32

65.30
O= = 4.08
16

Now, we will divide the quotients by the small quotient above;

2.04
H= =2
1.02

1.02
S= =1
1.02

4.08
O= =4
1.02

Now, we’ll write the empirical formula of the compound: H2SO4 = H2SO4

Problem: There is hydrogen and oxygen in a compound whose percent

composition are 11.11 % and 88.89%respectively. What is its empirical
formula?

Solution: First, we'll divide the percent composition of elements by respective

atomic mass:
 11.11
H= =1
1

88.89
O= = 5.55
16

Now, we’ll divide the quotients by the small quotient above:

11.11
H= =2
5.55

5.55
O= =1
5.55

Now we’ll write the empirical formula of the compound; H2O1 = H2O

Do It Yourself
An experiment showed that a compound consists of 3 gram carbon atom and 8
gram oxygen atom. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

6.2.2: Determining the Molecular Formula of a Compound from Percent

Composition

If we want to determine the molecular formula of a compound from its percent

composition, we need to determine the empirical formula first. If the total mass
of the empirical formula of that compound is equal to its molecular mass then
the very empirical formula is also the molecular formula. But when the
empirical formula and molecular mass of the compound varies from each other,
then we need to find out how many times greater the molecular mass is from the
empirical formula.

If molecular mass is n times greater than the empirical formula, then

Molecular Formula = (Empirical Formula)n

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
Here n =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

Suppose, percent composition of a compound is C = 92.31 %, H = 7 .69%. The

molecular mass of the compound is 78. Determine its molecular formula.

Let's divide the percent composition of elements with their respective atomic
number:
 92.31
C= =7.69
12

7.69
H= = 7.69
1

Now, we’ll divide the quotients by the small quotient above:

7.69
C= =1
7.69

7.69
H= =1
7.69

So, the empirical formula of the compound; C1H1 = CH

Since the empirical formula is CH, the molecular formula will be (CH)n = CnHn

The mass of empirical formula of the compound stands = 12 x 1 + 1 x 1 = 13

and its molecular mass = 78
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 78
Therefore n = = 13 = 6
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

Thus, the molecular formula of the compound is C6H6

Determining Empirical Formula from Molecular Formula

The molecular formula of a compound can be the base to determine its

empirical formula. Suppose, we need to find the empirical formula of glucose
(C6H12O6).

A glucose (C6H12O6).molecule consists of O6 C atoms, 12 H atoms and 06 0

atoms.

The ratio of atoms C: H : 0 = 6 : 12 : 6 = 1 : 2 : 1

Therefore, the empirical formula of glucose is C1H2O=1 = CH2O

Sometimes, the empirical formula and molecular formula are similar. For
example, the molecular formula of water is H2O, its empirical formula is H2O
too. Both the formulas of sulfuric acid is H2SO4.

Usually, the compounds, all the atoms of which can be divided by a certain
number, they have different molecular and empirical formula. The molecular
formula of benzene is C6H6 Since the number of atoms here are divisible by 6,
therefore, its empirical formula will be C1H1 = CH. Similarly, the molecular
formula of ethene is C2H2 Therefore, its empirical formula is C1H2 = CH2.

Chemical Reactions

The change which causes a substance to get a new set of properties giving up its
own properties and features is called the chemical change. The process that
brings the change is called chemical reaction. Chemical equation is the short
expression of a chemical process by using symbols, formula and sign.

The substances that are used to begin a chemical reaction are called reactants.
The substance or substances with new properties that are formed at the end of
the reaction are called products.

There are some rules observed to write chemical equations in order to express
chemical reactions. The rules are:

1. In a chemical equation, the reactants are written on the left side and the
products are written on the right side; an equal(=) sign or an arrow (→) mark is
placed in the middle.

2. The reactants and products are written by means of their symbols and
formulas. If there are more than one reactants and products, they are written
with plus sign.

3. The number of atoms of different elements on the left side and the
number of atoms of the same elements on the right side need be equalized. This
is called balancing of chemical equation.

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

[Link] reactions are not balanced in the equations. In such cases, the
arrow mark is used instead of the equal sign.

H2 + O2 → H2O

5. Sometimes, the physical states of both reactants and products are also
mentioned in an equation. It is written on the right side of the element or
compound in first brackets ( ). If the physical state of the substance is solid, we
write (s), if the state is liquid, we write (1), if gas, we write (g). When the
substance is in the form of aqueous solution, we write ( aq). In the above
reaction, the reactants are gas and the product is liquid water. So we write:

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

The main objective of chemical equation is to express which elements have

participated in the reaction to form which product. That is why, it is not always
necessary to balance a chemical equation.

6. However, if an equation is to show how much heat has been produced or

absorbed in a reaction, it has to be balanced and the physical states of reactants
and products are to be written.

Solid substance carbon reacts with oxygen gas and produces carbon dioxide
(CO) gas. The equation will be as below:

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Solid calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid to

produce calcium chloride, gaseous carbon di oxide and liquid water.

CaCO3(s) + HCl (aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

calcium carbonate hydrochloric acid calcium chloride carbon dioxide water

Some reactions are there that require heat to be applied. The heat is expressed
with a delta (∆) sign above the arrow mark. For example, if heat is applied on
solid magnesium nitrate, it produces magnesium oxide, nitrogen dioxide gas and
oxygen gas.

6.3.1 Balancing Chemical Equation

Chemical reactions are briefly expressed through chemical equations. Though

reactants and products are different substances, they are composed of the same
elements. That is why conservation of mass rule is followed. When both the left
and right sides of an equation has the same number of atoms of the same
elements, we call that a balanced equation. See the example below:

Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2

It is true that we get magnesium chloride and hydrogen when magnesium and
hydrochloric acid is put in a reaction; therefore, the reaction is okay. However,
the equation is not balanced as the number of hydrogen and chlorine atoms on
both sides are not equal.

The Process of Balancing Equation

To make the number of atoms of different elements equal, the formula of

reactants and products are multiplied by suitable numbers (2, 3, 4 ....... ). There
is no specific rule to balance equations, but some strategies are followed in this
regard. They are:

1. Equation is written using the correct formula of reactants and products.

2. If the reactants and products are compound substances, that is, if the
atoms of more than one elements are present in the formula, balance the
equation, multiplying the reactants or products or both with required numbers.

3. First the number of atoms present in the molecules of compound

substances are balanced. Then come the number of atoms of elements.

4. The balance has to be struck between the atoms of various elements on

the left side of the equation with those on the right side.

5. When the number of atoms of each and every element present in the
reaction on both the sides is equal, then the balancing of the equation is done.

Let us examine some examples in this regard.

Example -1

Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2

In the above reaction, the number of Cl atom in the compound HCl on the left is
one while in the compound MgC12 there are two Cl atoms. It is understood that
the number of Cl on both sides is not equal. The same way, on the left, there is
one H atom while on the right, there are two H atoms. H atoms are also not
balanced. Mg atom on both sides are equal as there is only one on each side.

First, let us balance the Cl atom. For this, let us multiply HCl on the left side
with 2:

Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Now, a brief check will tell us that all atoms of various elements present on both
the sides of the equation are equal. Therefore, the balancing of the equation is
done. When the balancing of the equation is done, it can be written with equal
(=) sign too.

Mg + 2HCl = MgCl2 + H2

Example 2

Na2CO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2

This is not balanced equation as the left side has two Na while the right has one.
Therefore, we multiply NaCl with 2:

Na2CO3 + HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Still it is not balanced. Now the right has two Cl while the left has one CL
Multiply HCl on the left with 2:

Na2CO3 +2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Now, number of atoms of every element on both sides is equal.

Na2CO3 +2HCl = 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

Example3

Aluminum oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid and produces aluminum chloride
and water.

Al2O3 + HCl → AlCl3 + H2O

To strike a balance of Al on both sides, let us multiply A1Cl3 with 2

Al2O3 + HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2O

To balance the number of Cl, multiply HCl on the left with 6:

Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + H2O

Still balance is lacking as the number of O on the left is 3 while on the right is 1.
There is difference between the numbers of H too. So, let us multiply H2O with
3:

Al2O3 + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

Now there is balance.

Al2O3 + 6HCl = 2AlCl3 + 3H2O

6.3.2 Mole and Chemical Equation

Certain amount of a reactant reacts with a certain amount of another reactant

and produces a certain amount of product or products. The branch of chemistry
that deals with measurements of products from amounts of reactants and
measurements of reactants from amounts of products is called Stoichiometry.
The information that can be gathered regarding mole from a chemical equation
is the Stoichiometry of that reaction.

Analyzing the Stoichiometry, we can tell how many reactants reacted to

produce how many products, how many moles of reactants formed how many
moles of products, how many grams of reactants participated in the reaction to
produce how many grams of products.

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)

Magnesium Oxygen Magnesium Oxide

According to stoichiometry, we can write

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)

2 mole Mg atom 1 mole O2 molecule 2 mole MgO molecule

2×6.023 × 1023no 6.023 × 1023no of 2×6.023 × 1023no
of Mg atom O2 molecule of MgO molecule
2× 24 = 48𝑔 1× 32 = 32 𝑔 2× 40 = 80 𝑔
Type equation here.

These accounts presented below a balanced equation of a chemical reaction are

called its Stoichiometry. When both reactants and products are gaseous
substances, in the Stoichiometry, under standard condition, 1 mole gaseous

substance has the volume of 22 .4 liter.

Example:

Problem: How much oxygen is necessary for 5 gram magnesium to react and
produce magnesium oxide?
 Solution: Magnesium reacts with oxygen and produces magnesium oxide. The
balanced equation of this reaction along with its Stoichiometry is shown above.
Accordingly with this Stoichiometry:

48 gram magnesium reacts with 32 gram oxygen

1×32
1 gram magnesium reacts with gram oxygen
48

1×32×5
5 gram magnesium reacts with = 3.33gram oxygen
48

Problem: How many grams of magnesium oxide will be produced if we put

necessary amount of oxygen with 2 gram magnesium metal?

Solution: According to Stoichiometry of the reaction:

48 gram Mg metal produces 80 gram magnesium oxide

2×40
1 gram Mg metal produces gram magnesium oxide
2×24

2×40×2
2 gram Mg metal produces = 3.33 gram magnesium oxide
2×24

Problem: How much oxygen is necessary alongside required amount of

magnesium metal to produce 10 gram magnesium oxide?

Solution: According to Stoichiometry of the reaction:

80 gram magnesium oxide is produced from 32 gram oxygen

1×32
1 gram magnesium oxide is produced from gram oxygen
2×40

1×32×10
10 gram magnesium oxide is produced from gram oxygen
2×40

Problem: How many NH3 molecules will be produced from 5N2 molecules?

Solution:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3 (g)

6.023 × 1023no of 3×6.023 × 1023no 2×6.023 × 1023no

molecules of molecules of molecules
From the equation

6.023 × 1023no of molecules Of N2 produces 2×6.023 × 1023no of molecules

of NH3

6.023 × 1023×2
1 no of molecules Of N2 produces = 2 no of molecules of NH3
6.023 × 1023

6.023 × 1023×2×5
So, 5 1 no of molecules Of N2 produces = 10 no of molecules
6.023 × 1023
of NH3

Do it Yourself

Task: How many moles of O2 is necessary to produce 6 moles of water?

Task: How much NH3 in liter will be formed out of 4 liter N2 in standard
temperature and pressure? Here, both reactants and products are gaseous.

6.4 Limiting Reactant

If there is more than one reactant in a chemical reaction, it is not always
possible to supply all reactants in required amount when supplied after
weighing. As a result, some reactants complete the reaction and nothing of it
remains at the end while another reactant was also there in the reaction but some
residue of it remains at the end. The reactant that finished itself during the
reaction is called the limiting reactant. In a chemical reaction, the limiting
reactant is determined by its amount. The amount of a limiting reactant will tell
us how much of which
 reactant will react in the reaction, how much residue will be left and how much
of which product will be produced.

Example

Problem: 4 oxygen molecules is put into 4 atoms of magnesium metal. Which

is the limiting reactant here?

2Mg + O2 → 2 MgO

6.023 × 1023no of 6.023 × 2 ×6.023 ×

atoms 1023no of 1023no of
molecules molecules

Solution: The above equation tells us that, 1 O2 molecule is necessary to react

with 2 metallic atoms of Mg. So, 2 O2 molecules are necessary to complete the
reaction with given 4 Mg atoms. That means, ( 4-2) = 2 molecules of oxygen
will be left over when all the given magnesium atoms will finish themselves in
the reaction. Here the magnesium atoms do not remain anymore at the end of
the reaction. Therefore, the magnesium is the limiting reactant in this reaction.

What would have happened if 30 molecule oxygen were mixed with 70 atoms
of magnesium metal?

Since one O2 molecule reacts with 2 Mg atoms, 70 Mg atoms would require

(70+2)=35 O2 molecules to finish themselves in the reaction. But the given
number of O2 is only 30. Therefore, oxygen will finish itself in the reaction and
it is the limiting reactant here.
Problem: 75 g chlorine gas is mixed with 5 g hydrogen gas. Which is the
limiting reactant here? How much of which reactant will be left over at the end
of the reaction?

H2 Cl2 → 2HCl

2 gram 2× 35.5 g =71g 2× 36.5 g =73g

Solution: The equation of the reaction tells:

2 gram hydrogen gas needs in the reaction 71 gram chlorineType equation here.
71× 5
o, 5 gram hydrogen gas needs in the reaction = 177.5 gram chlorine
2

Since only 75 gram chlorine is given for the reaction, so Cl2 will finish itself
earlier and it is the limiting reactant.

Do it Yourself_________________

Task: Find out how much is left over in the above reaction.

The reactants used in chemical reactions are not always found as 100% pure.
The purest chemical substances / reactants are called Analar or Analar grade
substance. Analar substances are 99% pure. The impure substances are purified
through crystallization, distillation, fractional distillation, chromatography etc
processes which you will learn about in higher classes.

Many a times, one or more purification processes fail to yield 100% pure
products. When the reactant is not 100% pure, the reaction does not yield the
amount of product that was calculated from the amount of limiting reactant.

The amount of product from a chemical reaction in percentage can be

determined following the formula below:
Amount of Product Obtained from Reaction x 100
Percentage of yield =
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example

Problem: 2 gram metallic magnesium reacts with necessary amount of oxygen

and yields 3.25 gram magnesium oxide. What is the percentage of the yield?

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

2× 24 = 48 1 × 32 = 32 2 × 40 = 80
Solution: According to equation:

48g magnesium yields 80g MgO

2× 2×40
So, 2g magnesium yields = 3.33 g MgO
2×24

The actual yield after the reaction is 3.25 gram magnesium oxide.
3.25×100
Therefore, percentage of the yield= = 97.6%
3.33

Do it Yourself

Task: When heat is applied on 80 gram CaCO3, it yields 39 gram Cao.

Determine the percentage of the yield. The atomic mass of Ca, C and O are 40,
12 and 16 respectively.

Experiment

Name of Experiment: Preparation of 0.1 molar sodium carbonate solution in

250mL volumetric flask.

Principle : Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is a primary standard substance

because it is found in pure and dry state, it can be directly weighed in balance,
its molar solution is long lasting. To prepare 0.1 molar sodium carbonate
solution in a volumetric flask, the following calculation is necessary:

Here, V = 250mL, S = 0.1 molar, M = 23x2 + 12 + 16x3 = 106, w =?

SVM
W=
1000

0.1× 250×106
W= gram
1000

= 2.65 gram

If we weigh and put 2.65 gram Na2CO3 inside a volumetric flask and fill the
flask with 250mL water, the 0.1 molar sodium carbonate solution will be
prepared. However, this molar solution preparation is very tough as to weigh
2.65 gram sodium carbonate is really tough. Therefore, the solution is made at a
nearer molarity.
Necessary Instruments: 250mL volumetric flask, funnel, weighing bottle,
chemical balance, wash bottle.

Chemicals: Pure sodium carbonate, water

Procedure:

1. A funnel is inserted in the mouth of a clean 250mL volumetric flask.

2. A dry weighing bottle is weighed on the chemical balance.

3. Now, pour some sodium carbonate in the weighing bottle in a way so that
the total weight of the bottle is 2. 65 gram higher than the previous
weight.

4. Pour the sodium carbonate from the weighing bottle inside the volumetric
flask through the funnel.

5. Pour the distilled water slowly from the wash bottle inside the volumetric
flask. After pouring half the water, fix a cork on the mouth of volumetric
flask and shake it so that the sodium carbonate is dissolved fully into the
water. Now, add the rest of the water to fill up 250 mL.

Caution:

1. Take dry and pure sodium carbonate

2. Ensure the weighing bottle is dry

3. Add distilled water only

Task for Learners: According to your data and statistics from the above
experiment, prepare a 0.1 molar sodium carbonate solution in a 250mL
volumetric flask.

Determination of percent composition of lattice water of hydrated copper

sulphate

Principle: Blue vitriol's chemical name is [Link] copper sulphate. Its

formula is CuSO4.5H2O. Blue vitriol consists of copper sulphate and 5

molecules of water. It is blue color crystal lattice. These are five moles water in
it. If heat is applied, that water vaporizes and its colour turns into white. These
five moles of water are called crystal water.

Ingredients: Copper sulphate, desiccators, chemical balance, ceramic bowl,

tripod stand, net, Bunsen burner/spirit lamp.

Procedure:

1. Weigh the porcelain bowl in the

balance. Suppose, the weight is a gram.
Now take some copper sulphate in the
bowl and weigh it again. Let's say, the
weight now is b gram. Therefore, the
mass of copper sulphate is (b-a) gram.

2. Fix the net on a tripod stand and put

the bowl containing copper sulphate on
it. Heat it with Bunsen burner or spirit
lamp.

3. Keep marking the copper

sulphate as heat is applied. The blue colour will gradually turn white.
Since the water in the blue vitriol is vaporizing, it is transforming its
colour.

4. When the transformation of colour is complete, stop the heating.

5. Swiftly take the bowl to desiccators and weigh it again after cooling. If it
isn't done fast, the copper sulphate will again absorb water and turn blue.
Let's assume, this new weight is c.

That mean, after the vaporization of water, copper sulphate's mass is (c-a) gram.
The mass of vaporized water from the blue vitriol is (b-a) - (c-a) gram. = (b-c)
gram

Calculation:

Mass of removed water from (b-a) gram copper sulphate = (b-c) gram
(b−c)
So, mass of removed water from 100 gram copper sulphate= × 100 gram
(b−a)

(b−c)
The percent composition of crystallized water in copper sulphate is × 100
(b−a)
%

Caution:

The heating has to be slow and careful so that the heat reaches all spots. After
the removal of water, the weighing has to quick.

Task for Learners: Carry out a task to determine the percent compositing of
water in copper sulphate.
 Exercise
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the volume of 2 gram hydrogen in standard condition?

a. 2.24 liter b. 11.2 liter

c. 22.4 liter d. 44.8 liter

2. Which of the following is the formula of calcium phosphate?

a. CaPO4 b. Ca(PO4)2

c. Ca2(PO4) d. Ca3(PO4)

Answer questions 3 and 4 in the light of the following stem:

5 gram hydrogen gas is passed on to 75 gram chlorine gas.

3. How many chlorine atoms are used in the reaction of the stem?

a. 1.27×1024 b. 2.54 × 1024

b. 6.02 × 1023 d. 6.64 × 1023

4. Which of the following is collected as remains in the reaction?

a. 1.44 mole H2 b. 1.44 mole Cl2

c. 2.89 mole H2 d. 2.89 mole Cl2

5. What is the volume of 17 gram ammonia gas in standard condition?

a. 24.2 liter b. 22.4 liter

c. 12.2 liter d. 11.4 liter

6. How many molecules are there in 10 gram CaCO3?

a. 6.02 × 1023 b. 6.02 × 1021

c. 6.02 × 1022 d. 2.58 × 1022

Creative questions

1.

a. What is mole?

b. What do you understand by empirical

formula and molecular formula?

c. Determine the composition of the salt

that can be formed by combining the
solutions shown in the stem.

d. Will the molarity of the shown solutions

be same? Give mathematical explanation.

2.4.4 g carbon dioxide and 5g calcium oxide is mixed to prepare 10 g

[Link] expected yield is not met after the reaction is over.

a. What is chemical equation?

b. Explain the molar volume of carbon dioxide.

c. Determine how many moles of carbon dioxide was used in the reaction.

d. Give logical explanation of the lesser yield than expected in the reaction
of the stem.
 Board Question
Chapter 6
Concept of Mole and Chemical Counting

1.
Burette
500 mL
0.2M
HCl

Beaker
10g
Na2CO3
250 mL
solution

a. What is endothermic reaction?

b. Mg + CuSO4 → MgSO4 + Cu; in this reaction which is spectator ion?

Explain.

c. Determine the concentration of the solution of beaker.

d. The nature of the solution will be acidic or basic, if total solution from the
burette is added to the beaker. –analyze it mathematically.

2.
Na2CO3
26.5g

250 mL

a. What is melting point?

b. Sulphur has variable valency –explain.

c. Determine the molarity of the solution in stem.

d. Which compound will be used up faster if 25g HCl is added to the solution
of the stem –calculate.

3.

There are C = 40%, H= 6.67% in a compound having carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen. The relative molecular mass of the compound is 60.

a. What is isotope?

b. Why does salt bridge use in Galvanic Cell?

c. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

d. Explain mathematically of the preparation of 2.5 L -0.1M solution by

identifying the compound.

4.

In a hydrocarbon C = 75% and H =25%. The molecular mass of the compound

is 16.

a. What is a limiting reaction?

b. Explain the effect of isotope of phosphorous in agriculture.

c. Determine the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon of stem.

d. Chloroform can be produced from the stems compound –explain with

equation.

5.

8g MgO and 11g CO2 are taken to produce 21g MgCO3. But expected product is
not obtained.

a. Which group of elements are called halogen?

b. Why is Ne placed in group 18 of the periodic table?

c. Calculate how much CO2 is used in above reaction?

d. Explain the cause of not getting the expected product.

6.

A compound M having molecular mass 90. By analyzing 15g of it, 0.33g

Hydrogen, 4g carbon and 10.67g oxygen are obtained.

a. What is nucleon number?

b. why the melting point of MgCl2 is high?

c. Determine the percent composition of the stem compound.

d. It is possible to determine the molecular formula of M by using the above

mass of the stem. Explain mathematically.

7.

250mL
100 mL
5.2g
0.50M pot B
NaOH
FeCl2
pot B

pot A pot B

a. What is pH?

b. Why the solid ionic compound cannot conduct electricity?

c. Determine the concentration of pot B of the stem.

d. Which one will be the limiting reactant if the compounds of A and B are
mixed together? Determine it mathematically.
8.
Na(5 gm)
pot B HCl (10 gm),(aq)

pot B

a. What is halogen?

b. Differentiate atomic number and mass number.

c. How much salt is obtained from the stem’s reaction?

d. In the stem which one is limiting of reactant? Analyze mathematically.

9.

a. Write the formula of calamine ore.

b. Write the significance of 3919K+

c. To prepare 25.5gm H2 how much HCl(l) should be added in the mentioned

stem?

d. Is it equal number of molecules of residue and brown gas will be produced,

when nitrate salt of stem’s metal is heated? Analyze.
10.

Three types of solution of salt are present in given three beakers:-

100 mL
100 mL 100 mL
0.1M
0.1M 0.1M
pot B Na2CO3 pot B pot B
Na2SO4 NaNO3
solution
pot B solution solution
pot B pot B

(i) (ii) (iii)

a. What is diffusion?

b. Why the melting point of K is less than N? explain.

c. What will be the concentration of the salt of the solution after adding more
100 ml water in (i) beaker? Calculate i.

d. The amount of solute of (ii) and (iii) of the stem are different –justify this
statement mathematically.

11.

Three types of solution of salt are present in given three beakers:-

100 mL
100 mL 100 mL
0.1M
0.1M 0.1M
pot B Na2CO3 pot B pot B
Na2SO4 NaNO3
solution
pot B solution solution
pot B pot B

(i) (ii) (iii)

a. What is isomer?

b. Why the melting point of K is less than N? explain.

c. What will be the concentration of the salt of the solution after adding more
100 ml water in (i) beaker? Calculate i.
d. The amount of solute of (ii) and (iii) of the stem are different –justify this
statement mathematically.

12. To form 20g MgCl2, 5.05g Mg and 14g Cl2 are taken. But after the reaction
it has been observed that 20g of the product is not formed.

a.. Which isotope is used to measure the age of the earth?

b. Determine the position of silicon in the periodic table using electronic

configuration.

c. Determine the number of moles of Mg used in the reaction?

d. Analyze the reason for not producing of 20g product in the reaction.

13. Saif and Shawon prepared 250mL solution of 4.2g of baking powder in a
beaker. 300 mL 0.1M solution of HCl was in another beaker.

a. What is diffusion?

b. Explain the structure of SiO2.

c. Determine the concentration of 1st solution given in the stem.

d. Which one will be limiting reagent when solution of both beakers is mixed to
each other? Analyze it mathematically.

14.

29A, 16B

[Here A and B used as Symbols]

a. What is effusion?

b. Explain the cause of difference of mass number of the two atoms 1H1 and 1H1.

c. Determine the number of atoms in 5gram of B element of the stem.

d. Element B follows normal rule of electronic configuration. But element A is

an exception to this rule- give a logical explanation.
15.

The percent composition of a compound is, N = 36.8% and O = 63.2 %.

Molecular mass of the compound is 76.

a. What is molar volume?

b. What is meant by transition element?

c. Explain the heat change of the reaction that occurs between the elements
mentioned in the stem.

d. Show that molecular formula and empirical formula of the compound is same
by using the percent composition of N and O and the molecular mass of the
compound mentioned in the above stem.

16.

p22g
B 150 mL
pot
22g B
Na2CO3
H2SO4
pot B pot B

Beaker A Beaker B

a. Define analar?

b. H2O is a polar compound –explain.

c. Find the percentage composition of salt which is formed between the two
compounds given in the stem.

d. 50 mL more water is added in the beaker –A. Compare the concentration of

the compound A and B.
17.

p25g
B 100 mL
pot
25g B
HNO3
NaOH
pot B pot B

a. What is called inert gas?

b. Why NH4+ is a radical? Explain.

c. Find out the limiting reagent, if both of the reagents are mixed together in an
appropriate condition.

d. Will the concentration of both reagents be same? Give mathematical logic.

18.

(i)
pot B 0.75M
31.75mL
solution
pot B 2g X
contains

ii. Al2(OH)3 + H2SO4 → A + H2O

a. What is combustion reaction?

b. Write down two relations between chemistry and biology.

c. How many molecules are present in 10g of the stem’s A substance at STP?

d. Is X substance Sodium carbonate or Magnesium carbonate? Analyze

mathematically.