Major approach to personality
[Link] Approach
"Humors" are bodily fluids that, according to Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher and physician,
influence human behavior and personality. These Humor bodily fluid are:
Choleric- (high in yellow Bile): These are the people who are irritable, hot tempered and
aggressive in nature.
Sanguine- (high in Blood): These people are careful, happy, cheerful and are optimistic in
nature.
Phlegmatic- (high in Phlegm): These people are calm, slow and lazy. They show no or little
excitement.
Melancholic- (high in Black Bile): These are depressed people. These have a pessimistic
outlook towards life.
Blood came from the heart, black bile from the spleen, yellow bile from the liver and phlegm
from the brain.
Hippocrates developed this theory, proposing that the balance of these four bodily
fluids—blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm—determines a person's temperament and
behavior.
And these four humors were related to the Greek’s concept of four basic qualities: heat,
dryness, moisture and cold.
William Sheldon
William Sheldon, uses Physique, body build and temperament to describe the basis of
personality of different people.
Endomorphic: These are people who are fat, have soft skin and round body type. Such people
are sociable in nature. They are happy and relaxed in most situations.
Mesomorphic: These have strong body build. Such people are muscular and rectangular in
body shape and size. Mesomorphics are seen as aggressive people, adventurous in nature,
energetic and dominant in behavior.
Ectomorphic: These are thin people who are fragile, pale and long in body build. Such people
are introvert in nature, they are artistic and brainy and live a balanced and stable life.
Carl Jung
Carl Jung proposed another grouping of people into Introverts and Extroverts:
Introverts are those people who prefer staying alone. They avoid interaction with others. They
are shy in nature and show social withdrawal. Such people keep their conflicts to themselves.
Extroverts are sociable people. They love meeting new people, making new friends. They are
talkative and friendly and to move away from life stressors they involve themselves in sharing
and diverse social activity.
Friedman & Rosenman
Friedman & Rosenman developed theories of personality types from “ type-A to type-B” based
on the observation of their heart patients.
And later Morris extended this theory by adding “type-C and type-D” of personality type.
Type-A: personalities tend to have a lack of patience and are highly competitive, both with
others and with themselves. They set clear goals and work hard to achieve them, but they
struggle to find joy in the process or in their efforts to reach those goals. They constantly feel a
sense of urgency and often believe they don't have enough time to relax. Due to these traits,
they are more prone to stress, heart problems, and high blood pressure.
Type-B: personality tends to be more relaxed as compared to Type A personality. They enjoy
more, face less stress and are more creative and imaginative people. They are more tolerant of
others and they enjoy whatever they achieve.
Type-C: personality means cancer-prone personality. Such people have difficulty in expressing
their emotion and tend to suppress emotions, particularly negative ones such as pain, sadness,
and anger. These people are cooperative with others, they are unassertive
and patient. Because their compliance level is higher, they are not able to show their
disagreement and it moves them towards cancer.
Type-D: People who fall under this type blame themselves for all the negatives happening in
their lives. Because of this blaming, they become more prone to face depression.
Indian Perspectives on Personality Typologies
Charak Samhita's Tridosha Theory
In the Indian system of Ayurveda, Charak Samhita categorizes people into three types based
on the concept of Tridosha, which are believed to influence an individual's temperament or
basic nature:
1. Vata: Associated with qualities like movement, creativity, and quick thinking.
2. Pitta: Linked to qualities such as energy, intelligence, and ambition.
3. Kapha: Reflects calmness, patience, and stability.
These categories are collectively known as a person's Prakriti or natural constitution, and they
influence both physical health and psychological behavior.
Trigunas Theory in Indian Tradition
Indian discourse also includes another typology called Trigunas, which refers to three essential
qualities that shape human behavior. These qualities are present in different degrees in every
individual:
1. Sattva: Represents qualities like truthfulness, discipline, cleanliness, and a sense of duty.
2. Rajas: Associated with desire, materialistic needs, envy, and the pursuit of pleasure.
3. Tamas: Reflects traits like laziness, helplessness, anger, and a feeling of being depressed.
The dominance of one Guna in a person influences their behavior and personality traits.
[Link] Approach
Trait theories focus on identifying and measuring specific personality traits that make individuals
unique.
Traits are psychological characteristics that vary from person to person. This approach is
often called Psychometric Theories because it relies on using tests and assessments to
measure these traits. The key theories included in this approach are:
Gordon Allport's Trait Theory
Raymond Cattell's Personality Factors Theory
Eysenck's Trait-Dimensional Theory
Big Five Factor Model of Personality
Gordon Allport's Trait Theory
Gordon Allport's Trait Theory, which was one of the first major approaches to understanding
personality. He believed traits are determining tendencies to respond. According to him,
humans possess a number of traits which determine behavior in such a manner that an
individual approaches different situations with similar plans. He proposed a hierarchy of levels
of the three types of traits:
Cardinal Traits: cardinal traits also known as an individual's master control. They are top of the
hierarchy. Allport believed that some people have dispositions that influence most aspects of
their behavior. These are so dominant that nearly all the individual’s actions can be traced back
to them through those traits. He called these highly generalized dispositions cardinal traits. For
example, Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Violence.
Central Traits: These traits are next in the hierarchy after cardinal traits. According to Allport,
they are less pervasive in nature but still represent generalized characteristics. These traits are
found in varying degrees in every person. For example, an individual may be described as
foodie or kind. They serve as the basic building blocks that shape most of our behavior.
Secondary Traits: These exist at the bottom of the hierarchy. They are more specific in nature
and consistent as compared to central traits. They are plenty but are visible in specific
situations; they include a person’s attitudes and preferences. For example, being a foodie is a
central trait whereas liking Chinese food specifically is a secondary trait.
Raymond Cattell theory of Personality
Raymond Cattell Personality Factors Theory: Cattell believed that people differ based on a
common personality structure. Based on his observation and experience he determined
personality structure.
Initially, he worked with 4,500 words that were used by people for personality description ( such
as, jealousy, ego etc but later he reduced them to 171 traits using factor analysis.
He concluded that personality is composed of 16 Primary or source traits:
Source Traits: 8, Stable traits that form the core of personality. Examples of source traits:
Reasoning, Emotional Stability.
Surface Traits: 8, Visible traits resulting from interactions of source traits. Examples of
surface traits: Shyness, Tention, privateness.
Eysenck’s Trait-Dimensional Theory/Eysenck’s hierarchical Theory
Eysenck’s Trait-Dimensional Theory/Eysenck’s hierarchical Theory:
Eysenck's theory is sometimes referred to as "Temperament" theory because it focuses on the
biological dimensions of personality and their relationship to environmental and social factors.
His research identified three major dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Psychoticism.
Together, these dimensions form the basis of three major personality traits.
1. Extraversion:
This dimension measures how outgoing, social, and energetic a person is. High extraversion
indicates a person who is sociable, talkative, and enjoys being around others, while low
extraversion (or introversion) describes someone who is reserved, quiet, and prefers solitary
activities.
2. Neuroticism:
Neuroticism reflects emotional stability and resilience. High levels of neuroticism suggest a
tendency towards anxiety, moodiness, and emotional instability. People low in neuroticism are
generally more emotionally stable, calm, and resilient in stressful situations.
3. Psychoticism:
This dimension measures traits related to aggression, impulsivity, and a lack of empathy. High
psychoticism indicates a tendency toward antisocial behavior and hostility, while low
psychoticism suggests a more compassionate and cooperative nature.
Big Five Factor Model of Personality
Big Five Factor Model of Personality: After Cattell, many researchers examined the number
of trait dimensions and try to reduce them among them were Paul Costa and Robert Mc Crae
who come up with five major personality factors/trait’s known as OCEAN :
•Openness to Experience: It is the willingness of a person to try new things and being open to
different experiences. Such people are imaginative, curious and creative. Low scores on this
factor are conventional in their working and thinking, they are uncreative and not much curious.
•Conscientiousness: This refers to a person’s ability to stay organized and motivated. People
with high conscientiousness are well-organized, always on time, and work hard. Others can rely
on them because they are responsible and dependable. On the other hand, people with low
conscientiousness tend to be lazy, careless, and disorganized.
•Extraversion: This term was first coined by Carl Jung, and later used by Eysenck and then
by Mc crae and Costa. Extroverts are sociable people. They love meeting new people, making
new friends. They are talkative and friendly and to move away from life stressors they involve
themselves in sharing and diverse social activity.
•Agreeableness: People high on agreeableness are easygoing and good-hearted people. They
are pleasant, lenient and trustworthy. They are ready to help others. People low on this factor
are critical, irritable and ruthless.
•Neuroticism: Neuroticism reflects emotional stability and resilience. High levels of neuroticism
suggest a tendency towards anxiety, moodiness, and emotional instability. People low in
neuroticism are generally more emotionally stable, calm, and resilient in stressful situations.
[Link] Approach
Of personality
The Psychodynamic Approach to personality was developed by Sigmund Freud and focuses
on the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. This approach suggests that our
personality is shaped by unconscious desires, fears, and experiences, often rooted in
childhood.
1. Topographical Model:
Freud's Topographical Approach divides the mind into three levels of awareness:
Conscious: The thoughts and perceptions we are currently aware of.
Preconscious: Information that is not currently in consciousness but can be brought into
awareness easily, such as memories or stored knowledge.
Unconscious: The largest and most influential part of the mind, containing repressed thoughts,
desires, and feelings that significantly affect our behavior. These are often too painful or
unacceptable to enter the conscious mind directly.
Repression in the Topographical Approach:
In this model, Freud divides the mind into three levels: the conscious, preconscious, and
unconscious. Repression primarily operates in the unconscious, where threatening or
distressing thoughts, memories, and desires are buried. The conscious mind is not aware of
these repressed elements, but they continue to influence behavior and emotions indirectly.
Repression keeps unwanted material out of conscious awareness to avoid anxiety, but it still
affects our actions and feelings.
2. Dynamic Approach:
The Dynamic Approach emphasizes that personality is the result of ongoing internal conflicts
between different parts of the mind:
The Id, which seeks immediate pleasure.
The Ego, which balances the id's desires with the realities of life.
The Superego, which acts as a moral compass, guiding behavior based on societal norms and
values.
These elements constantly interact, and the conflicts between them create tension, leading to
the development of defense mechanisms like repression, projection, or denial to manage these
conflicts.
Repression in the Dynamic Approach:
Repression is one of the main defense mechanisms used by the ego to manage conflicts
between the Id (instinctual desires) and the Superego (moral conscience). When the Id
generates impulses that are unacceptable to the Superego or reality, the Ego represses these
impulses to avoid anxiety. However, while repression may relieve immediate tension, it can lead
to neurotic behaviors or emotional issues since the repressed content doesn’t disappear but
stays active in the unconscious.
3. Psychosexual Stages:
Freud proposed that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages, each
associated with a specific erogenous zone (a part of the body that provides pleasure when
stimulated) and conflict. These stages are:
1. Oral Stage (0-1 year): The focus is on the mouth, and pleasure is derived from activities like
sucking and biting. Fixation at this stage may result in oral habits like smoking or overeating in
adulthood.
2. Anal Stage (1-3 years): The focus shifts to the anus, with pleasure related to controlling
bowel movements.
3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years): The focus is on the genitals, and children experience the Oedipus
complex, where they develop unconscious desires for the opposite-sex parent.
4. Latency Stage (6-puberty): Sexual feelings are dormant, and the focus is on developing
social skills and intellectual abilities.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onward): This final stage sees the return of sexual energy, now
directed toward others, leading to mature adult relationships.
Freud believed that unresolved conflicts or fixations in any of these stages could lead to
personality problems later in life.
Repression in the Psychosexual Stages:
Repression plays a critical role during the development of the psychosexual stages. During
these stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital), unresolved conflicts or traumas can be
repressed if they cause too much anxiety or are socially unacceptable. For instance, during the
phallic stage, if a child experiences the Oedipus complex (unconscious sexual desire for the
opposite-sex parent), the conflict may be repressed due to its unacceptable nature. Such
repressions can shape the individual's personality later in life, often leading to fixations or
behavioral issues that Freud believed could only be resolved by bringing the repressed material
back into consciousness through therapy.
Carl Jung’s
Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology emphasizes the process of individuation, where an individual
balances competing internal forces to achieve personal growth and development. Unlike Freud,
Jung viewed libido not solely as sexual energy but as a generalized psychic energy that drives
creativity and spirituality. He introduced the concepts of the personal unconscious—comprising
individual experiences—and the collective unconscious, which is shared universally across
humanity. Within the collective unconscious, Jung identified archetypes—universal images and
patterns that shape human behavior, such as the Mother Earth and Sun God figures. Key
archetypes include the Self, which represents wholeness; the Persona, the mask shown to
society; the Shadow, representing hidden desires; and the Anima/Animus, which reflects
opposite gender qualities within an individual. Although Jung’s theory of archetypes lacks
biological evidence, his identification of the four basic functions—thinking, feeling, sensing, and
intuiting—laid the foundation for later personality theories by Eysenck and Cattell.
[Link] Approach
According to the Behavioral Approach to personality, personality is the response to the
environment, emphasizing stimulus-response associations, learning, reinforcement, and
punishment. For behaviorists, personality is defined by observable and measurable responses
rather than internal dynamics. They argue that as individuals encounter new stimuli in their
environments, they develop new responses that become habits, ultimately shaping their
personality.
Although behaviorists initially dismissed internal events such as thoughts and feelings as
irrelevant, the role of cognition has since gained recognition in personality development. Despite
the critique that behaviorist theories overlook the unconscious and physiological aspects, their
clear measurement of observable behaviors has made them practical and widely applied in
various fields, including education and therapy.
[Link] approach to personality
Psychodynamic approach portrays a passive and pessimistic perspective towards humans but
humanistic approach shows an optimistic view of human beings. Where else Humanistic
psychology examines individuals as complete beings, highlighting their subjective experiences,
sense of self, and potential for personal growth. This approach prioritizes understanding the
individual's current experiences, emphasizing personal responsibility and the importance of
self-improvement. Ultimately, Humanistic theories focus on fostering personal growth and
enhancing overall well-being.
Maslow’s Need hierarchy Theory
Maslow believed that humans naturally strive toward self-actualization and transcendence. This
growth is inherent within them, and fulfilling their needs drives the development of their
personality. He organized these human needs into a hierarchy with eight levels.
Carl Rogers’ Self Theory
1. Self-Concept:
Rogers believed that self is an internal image or perception of oneself, formed through
interactions with significant people and one’s own understanding of life. He called this
"Self-Concept," which includes beliefs, perceptions, attributes, goals, and aspirations related to
the self-Concept. Rogers differentiated between two aspects of self:
Real Self: The perception of one’s actual traits, abilities, and characteristics.
Ideal Self: The perception of who a person wants to be or believes they should be.
Rogers introduced the concept of Congruence, which refers to harmony between the real self
and the ideal self. Greater congruence leads to feelings of competence and capability, while
incongruence (a mismatch between real and ideal self) can lead to anxiety and psychological
distress. Rogers believed that every human has the potential to become a "Fully Functioning
Person," someone who lives life to the fullest and is in tune with their own feelings and
constructive impulses. A fully functioning person is self-aware, makes authentic choices, and
acts based on their own values, rather than societal expectations.
A key concept in Rogers’ theory is Unconditional Positive Regard, which refers to receiving
love, care, warmth, and respect from important person in their life without any conditions
attached. Rogers believed that for an individual to reach their full potential, they must
experience this unconditional love from parents or significant people in their life.
This means that parents or other significant individuals should offer their love and respect
without any expectations or conditions attached.
Rogers believed that when unconditional positive regard leads to congruence between the
real self and ideal self, a person can achieve personal growth and move toward becoming fully
functional. His ideas formed the basis of Client-Centered Therapy, which focuses on helping
individuals achieve self-actualization by fostering a supportive environment.
[Link] and Personality
Personality Development Process Through the Lenses of Culture
Definition: Personality is shaped by the interaction between physiological and environmental
factors, with cultural and social processes playing a crucial role. This cultural context
significantly influences how individuals perceive themselves and others, thereby guiding their
personality development.
Cultural Influence:
Cultural rituals, ceremonies, religious activities, and societal norms play a pivotal role in
personality formation. Culture establishes values and attitudes that are transmitted across
generations, creating consistency over time. This cultural framework dictates acceptable
behaviors and expectations, which in turn influence personality traits.
Differences Between Eastern and Western Cultures:
1. Western Culture:
Self and Others: In Western societies, individuals typically view themselves as separate from
others, resulting in loose boundaries between self and society.
Individualism: Emphasis is placed on personal independence and autonomy. People are
encouraged to pursue individual goals and define their identities based on personal
achievements.
Example: Americans often prioritize success and ambition, which fosters assertive and
competitive personalities. Personal accomplishments take precedence over collective
well-being.
2. Eastern/Indian Culture:
Interconnectedness: In contrast, Eastern cultures view the self as interconnected with others,
leading to fused boundaries. The identity of individuals is often shaped by their relationships and
social groups.
Collectivism: Collectivism, harmony, and cooperation are valued, with personal achievements
often subordinated to family and community needs.
Example: In India, the emphasis on family bonds and social interdependence fosters
personalities that prioritize cooperation and community over individual pursuits.
Conclusion
The process of personality development is profoundly influenced by cultural contexts. Western
cultures tend to nurture individualistic traits, encouraging independence and personal
achievement, while Eastern cultures emphasize collectivism and interconnectedness, shaping
personalities that value community and family.
3.8 Assessment of Personality
Assessment of personality
1. Definition:
Personality assessment refers to methods and tools used to analyze and measure personality
traits and characteristics. The goal is to predict behaviors in various situations and describe a
person based on personality theories.
Methods of Personality Assessment:
[Link]-Report Personality Inventories/Psychometric Tests: These are structured
questionnaires where individuals describe themselves. Responses are scored quantitatively
based on norms.
Example: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 16PF (Cattell's Personality
Factors), Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
Projective Techniques: These methods involve presenting unstructured stimuli, allowing
individuals to project their unconscious thoughts and feelings.
Example: Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Word Association Test,
Sentence Completion Test, and Draw-a-Person Test.
Behavioral Assessment Methods: Focuses on observing how a person behaves in different
situations.
Examples include Personality Interviews (structured or unstructured), Behavioral Observations,
and Rating Scales.
B. Projective Techniques:
These tests aim to reveal the unconscious part of a person’s mind, emotional disturbances, and
conflicts. However, they require expert skills for administration, scoring, and interpretation.
Examples include Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Word Association
Test, Sentence Completion Test, and Draw-a-Person Test (DAP).
C. Behavioral Assessment Methods:
Personality Interviews: Can be structured (specific questions) or unstructured (open-ended,
allowing in-depth responses).
Behavioral Observations: Observing individuals in real-life or clinical settings to gather
information about their personality.
Rating Scales: Common in educational and organizational settings, where behavior is rated
based on specific traits, using tools like the Likert scale. Raters should avoid biases like the
Halo Effect (judging based on a single trait).