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Chapter-4: Fabric Construction and Properties

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Chapter - 4

Fabric Construction and Properties

Taranpreet Kaur
[Link]. Research Scholar, Department of Food Science and Nutrition,
College of Community and Applied Sciences, MPUAT, Udaipur
Corresponding E-mail: taransudan7@[Link]

Abstract
Fabric construction is an important aspect of textile manufacturing as it affects the
performance, durability, and aesthetics of the finished product. Understanding fabric
construction is essential for producing high-quality textiles suitable for a variety of
applications. This chapter delves into the fundamentals of fabric construction and
properties, providing a comprehensive overview of key concepts such as yarn, weave,
knit, and non-woven fabrics. It describes the construction methods and distinguishing
features of woven, knitted, and non-woven fabrics, as well as what properties of
each method influence fabric characteristics. This chapter is an excellent resource
for understanding the complex world of fabric construction and its relevance in
everyday applications.
Keywords: Fabric, Fabric Construction, Knitting, Non Woven Fabrics, Weaving

Introduction
Fabric construction is the foundation of the textile industry, influencing textile
quality, functionality, and aesthetic appeal. It includes the methods and techniques
used to create fabrics from raw fibres, which affect everything from strength and
durability to texture and appearance. Fabric construction refers to how yarns or fibres
are organised and combined to make a fabric. The fabric construction process has an
impact on fabric strength, stretch, drape, breathability, and texture. Understanding
fabric construction is critical for anyone involved in textile production or design as
 45

it has a direct impact on the final product’s performance and suitability for various
applications.
Textiles are named and identified on the basis of their construction method.
Each of these designs and finishes uses a different set of materials and equipment.
Fabric construction methods such as weaving, knitting and non-woven fabrics all
contribute unique properties to the finished product. Weaving is the most versatile
method of fabric construction, followed by knitting. Weaving interlace yarns at
right angles and produces strong, stable fabrics, whereas knitting interloops yarns
producing a flexible and stretchy fabric. Non-woven fabrics, are made by bonding
fibres together, and are frequently used in medical and other industrial applications
due to their distinct properties. Other types of construction methods used include
braiding, nets, lace, felting, tufting, and multi-component fabrics.
Staying up to date on current fabric construction trends and advancements, such
as the development of smart textiles and sustainable materials, enables manufacturers
to innovate and improve clothing quality and functionality. This knowledge enables
designers and producers to create textiles that are not only long-lasting and comfortable,
but also environmentally friendly and tailored to modern consumer needs. In this
chapter, we’ll look at the fundamentals of fabric construction, including key concepts
and terminology. Knowledge of these aspects will enable readers to develop an insight
regarding the different construction methods and help them to produce high-quality,
innovative textile products for a variety of applications.

Basic Concepts in Fabric Construction

Fiber- Hollen and Saddler (1978) emphasized fibers as “the smallest visible unit
of a textile product, which determines the texture, feel, and durability of the fabric.”
Fibres can be natural (such as cotton and wool) or synthetic (such as polyester and
nylon). As described by Pizzuto (2009) fiber is “a basic entity of raw material that
has a length at least 100 times its diameter or width, enabling it to be processed
into yarns and fabrics.
Yarn- Yarn is made by twisting or spinning fibres together. It serves as a bridge
between fibres and fabrics. Yarn properties such as twist and thickness have a
significant impact on the characteristics of the finished fabric.
Fabric- It is the finished product made from yarn or fibres using various construction
methods. It is used to manufacture clothing, home textiles, and industrial products.
Gioello (2005) defined fabric as “a flexible planar substance constructed from
solutions, fibers, yarns, or any combination of these.”
46

Fig-5.1: Difference between fiber, yarn and fabric

Methods of Fabric Construction

1. WEAVING
Clothing is the second most basic need of a human being. Clothes are made by
interlacing various yarns. This process is commonly referred to as ‘weaving’. Different
weave patterns produce varying textures and strengths in the fabric. Elsasser (2010)
explained weaving as “the process of interlacing two sets of yarns, the warp and the
weft, to produce fabric” whereas Wingate (1976) described it as “a method of textile
production in which two distinct sets of yarns are interlaced to form a fabric.”
Textile weaving dates back to the beginning of civilization. Weaving is practised
all over the world and is done with the help of a loom. The primary function of the
loom is to weave clothes. Although the size and shape of looms can vary according
to their working capabilities, but their basic structure remains consistent across all
types. There are various looms available today. Some of these include: Hand Looms,
Table Looms, Floor Looms, Tapestry Looms, Draw Looms, Dobby Looms, Jacquard
Looms, Power Looms, and Circular Looms etc.

Fig. 5.2: Basic structure of a loom

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The interlacing of yarns requires both primary and secondary motions. The
primary motions are shedding, picking, and beating up. Shedding is the process
of separating warp yarns to prepare for weaving. Picking involves interlacing the
weft yarn with the warp yarns. After inserting the weft yarn, the weaving proceeds
with beating or battening. This step involves pushing the newly woven row against
the fabric, ensuring cohesion and uniformity. The secondary motions in the loom
include warp let-off and cloth pickup. The cloth is taken away from the weaving
area at a constant speed by the take-up motion, allowing for the needed spacing of
picks, and is finally wrapped by the cloth roller.

Terminologies used in Weaving

Warp- The longitudinal yarns held in tension on a loom, which serve as the foundation
for woven fabrics.
Weft- The horizontal yarns interlaced with the warp threads during weaving to
form the fabric.
Selvedge- The finished edge of the fabric that runs parallel to the warp threads,
which is usually more tightly woven to prevent unraveling.
Bias- The bias of a fabric runs diagonally across its woven or knitted material at a
45-degree angle to warp and weft threads offering increased stretch, drape, and fluidity.
Thread Count- The number of warp and weft threads per square inch in a woven
fabric, which indicates density and quality.
Gray Cloth- Raw fabric coming out of loom that has not been dyed, printed, or
finished.
Balance of Cloth- The even distribution of warp and weft threads in a woven fabric,
which results in a symmetrical appearance and uniform properties.

Basic Weave Structures

1. Plain Weave- Plain weave is the simplest and most common type of weave in
textile production, characterized by a simple over-and-under interlacing of warp
and weft yarns (Kadolph and Langford, 2019). This plain weave is noted for its
balanced construction, where each weft yarn passes alternately over and under each
warp yarn, creating a stable fabric with minimal stretch (Tortora and Johnson, 2018).
Plain-woven fabrics are known by a number of special names in the textile industry,
including broadcloth, taffeta, shantung, poplin, calico, tabby, and alpaca.
At least two warp ends and two weft picks are needed to construct the
fundamental plain weave unit. For this weave, two heald frames at the very least
48

are sufficient, but you can also use multiple heald frames (in multiples of the basic
weave). Many different types of fabrics, such as cambric, muslin, blankets, canvas,
dhotis, sarees, shirts, and suits, are made with plain weave. Its stability, adaptability,
and simplicity make it an essential weaving structure in the textile industry.
Plain weave is of two types:
a. Rib Weave: In a rib weave, the filling yarns (weft) are larger in diameter compared
to the warp yarns. This results in fabrics where fewer yarns per square centimeter
are visible on the surface, creating a ribbed texture.
b. Matt Weave or Basket Weave: In this type of weave, two or more yarns are used
in both the warp and filling direction. These groups of yarns are woven together
as one unit, producing a fabric with a basket-like effect.

Plain Weave Basket Weave

Fig. 5.3: Types of Plain Weave

2. Twill Weave- Twill weave is a versatile and popular weaving technique distinguished
by diagonal ridges or lines on the fabric surface. These diagonal lines are formed
by interlacing warp and weft yarns so that each weft yarn passes over or under two
or more consecutive warp yarns before changing direction. The direction of the
propagation of twill line classifies twill into right-hand or left-hand twill. According to
Kadolph and Langford (2014), twill weave gives fabric distinct textures and patterns,
expanding design possibilities beyond the simplicity of plain weave. Twill weaves
have excellent drape, durability, and wrinkle resistance. Tortora and Johnson (2018)
emphasise the structural properties of twill weave that contribute to its strength and
resilience, making it appropriate for heavy-duty fabrics like denim and twill tape.
Twill is popular as it is long-lasting and hides stains well. Twill fabrics includes jeans,
chinos, drill, gabardine, serge, and are used for making uniforms, furniture covers,
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bags, and other items. Twill weaves are known for their ability to produce a wide
variety of patterns, including herringbone, hounds tooth, and chevron, by varying
the interlacing pattern and yarn colour.

Fig. 5.4: Twill Weave

3. Satin/Sateen Weave- Satin/sateen is a basic weave with no regular pattern, like
twill. Fabric surfaces can be either warp or weft faced. Satin is warp faced, which
means the warp threads are visible throughout the fabric except for interlacement
with other yarns. A satin weave is identified by a minimum of four warp yarns
floating over a single weft yarn, as shown in the figure below. Satin should not be
confused with sateen, as the two are completely opposite in appearance with each
other (Neale, 2021).
Weft-faced fabrics are referred to as sateen, as the weft threads are prominently
visible on the fabric surface. Sateen fabric material lasts for long which is why most
of the times it is used in making sheets. This weave is unique for its interlacement
of 34 warp and weft threads in a single repeating unit. These weaves have the least
interlacement points among all basic weaves which gives a smoother and more
lustrous fabric finish.

Fig. 5.5: Satin/Sateen Weave

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Complex Weave Structures

1. Jacquard Weave- Jacquard weave is renowned for producing highly intricate and
large-scale designs using colored yarns and multi-weave structures. This advanced
technique utilizes a loom with a Jacquard attachment, allowing for each warp yarn
to be individually controlled by a series of punched cards linked in a continuous
strip. The Jacquard weave seamlessly incorporates all three basic weaves and their
combinations, resulting in richly detailed and decorative fabrics. Due to the complexity
and labor-intensive nature of this process, Jacquard fabrics are typically more
expensive. They are commonly used in home furnishings, apparel, and elaborate
decorative textiles. Notable examples include brocade, damask, tapestry, brocatelle,
and matelassé (Textile School, 2018).
2. Dobby Weave- Dobby weave is a weaving technique characterised by its intricate
designs, which are achieved using a dobby attachment on the loom. This attachment
raises and lowers warp yarns using a plastic tape with punched holes. This attachment
uses a plastic tape with punched holes to control the raising and lowering of the warp
yarns. These holes match up with particular warp threads, which make it possible to
weave intricate patterns into the fabric, like tiny geometric or floral figures. In order
to create its elaborate designs, dobby weaving combines two or more basic weaves
and uses up to 32 harnesses (Textile School, 2018).
3. Pile Weave- Pile fabrics are distinguished by the tufts or loops of fibres or yarns
that protrude from the base fabric. Pile fabrics are available in many forms, including
velvet, terry towel, chenille, and, perhaps most commonly, pile carpets (Gong, 2015).
These are 3-dimensional fabrics having three sets of yarns, in which warp and weft
establish a foundational fabric and an extra set of either warp or weft yarns is
introduced to generate a pile or loop surface. These supplementary yarns, forming
the pile, can undergo two treatments: they may be cut to create an upright pile on
the fabric’s face, known as Cut Pile, exemplified by velvet, or left uncut to form
loops on one or both sides of the fabric, termed Uncut Pile, as observed in terry
cloth (Textile School, 2018).
4. Double Cloth Weave- Double weave fabric is a complex kind of weave that is
made by weaving together four or five sets of warp and filling yarns to create a strong
and durable fabric. The interlacing of the horizontal weft and vertical warp threads
on the loom creates a unique texture and look. This fabric, which is frequently woven
from cotton, is flexible and long-lasting for a variety of uses. The cotton fibres swell
and become softer during washing, giving the material a cozy, worn-in look. Double-
weave fabrics are useful in many different products, such as blankets, upholstery,
and clothing, demonstrating their enduring appeal and broad use (Mathews, 2023).
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2. KNITTING
Knit fabric is made by interlooping yarns, creating a fabric known for its stretch and
flexibility. Spencer (2001) defined knitting as “the process of forming a fabric by
interlooping one or more yarns in a series of connected loops.” He further adds that
knitting results in “a textile structure with good elasticity and comfort properties.”
Knitted fabric has:
Courses: These are the series of successive loops lying in crosswise direction.
Wales: These are the lengthwise or vertical columns of loops.
This method of fabric production produces extremely comfortable and stretchy,
as well as wrinkle-resistant fabrics. Its elasticity allows it to easily accommodate a
wide range of body sizes. Knitted fabrics are used to make hosiery items such as
vests, socks and pants, as well as sweaters. They are especially well-suited for winter
clothing as they trap body heat within their numerous air pockets, providing warmth
even in cold temperatures (NIOS). Weft and warp knitting are two distinct knitting
techniques that produce a variety of fabrics. The main distinction between the two
is that weft knitting runs the yarn back and forth, whereas warp knitting runs the
yarn up and down the Knit fabric. This difference can result in two completely
different end products.

Types of Knitting
1. Warp Knitting- In warp knitting, the yarns run vertically or lengthwise along the
fabric. Each yarn is individually looped around each needle. Warp knitting machines
typically have multiple needles arranged in a parallel configuration. Fabrics produced
through warp knitting tend to have stability and strength in the lengthwise direction.
Warp knitting allows for the creation of complex patterns and textures and is often
used in the production of following fabrics:
1. Raschel: Features an openwork pattern and a textured surface. Used in
dresses, blouses, underwear, coats, and finishing fabrics.

2. Tricot: Soft fabric with lengthwise ribs on one side and crosswise ribs on
the other. Commonly used in lingerie, swimwear, lining, and sleepwear.

3. Milanese knit: Soft and lightweight, knitted diagonally with two sets of
yarns. Suitable for scarves, sweaters, and cardigans.

2. Weft Knitting- In weft knitting, the yarns run horizontally or widthwise across
the fabric. Each needle in the knitting machine forms a loop by interlocking the
yarn across the width of the fabric. Fabrics produced through weft knitting often
52

have greater elasticity and drape compared to warp-knitted fabrics. Weft knitting
is commonly used in the production of:
1. Jersey: Versatile fabric with vertical ribs on one side and horizontal ribs on
the other, known for its comfort and stretchiness. Ideal for dresses, skirts,
tops, underwear, pajamas, and t-shirts.

2. Interlock: Both sides have lengthwise ribs, offering good shape retention and
a smooth texture. Often used in fitting dresses, leggings, cardigans, and shirts.

3. Rib: Displays visible vertical ribs on both sides, providing excellent stretch
and a soft touch. Commonly found in turtlenecks, cuffs, cardigans, sweaters,
and neckbands.

4. Purl: Double-faced fabric with columns of knit and purl stitches, offering
two-way stretch and texture. Used in outerwear and sweaters.

Weft Knitting Warp Knitting

Fig. 5.6: Types of Knitting

3. NON-WOVEN FABRIC
Non-woven fabrics are made by bonding or felting fibres together instead of
traditional weaving or knitting processes. According to Mark and Sibly (1976)
these fabrics are “a sheet or web structure bonded together by entangling fiber or
filaments mechanically, thermally, or chemically.” Venkataraman (2006) describes
them as “fabrics made directly from fibers without the intermediary step of yarn
formation. These are porous sheets, either flat or tufted, that are formed directly
from individual fibres, melted plastic or plastic film.
Properties- There are many features of the nonwoven fabric that make it very useful.
These fabrics are elastic, lightweight, breathable, soft, long-lasting, and sheds a lot less
fibres than other fabrics. It is resistant to high temperatures, has a high absorption
capacity, and repels liquids and water. It is also wrinkle-resistant, ironable, and dry-
 53

cleanable, making it simple to maintain. Because of its excellent drapeability, ease

of dying without colour fading, and sewing ability, it becomes a desirable fabric in
terms of fashion.
Uses and Benefits- Non-woven fabrics find applications in a variety of fields,
including hygienic practices, wipes, clothing, medical, healthcare, personal care,
automotive, electronics, filtration, horticulture, furniture, construction, and packaging
(Islam Kiron, 2021).
Nonwovens find use in the fashion industry in the making of linings and footwear
components, but more importantly, because they are nonflammable, effectively fil-
ter the air to prevent dust from entering the air, and act as a barrier against bacteria
and viruses, NWF is used in the production of industrial workwear, chemical de-
fence suits, isolation, and sanitary protective clothing, including face masks.

Fig. 5.7: Uses of Non-Woven Fabric

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Table-5.1: Difference between Woven, Knitted and Non-Woven Fabric

Aspect Woven Fabric Knitted Fabric Non-Woven Fabric

Manufacturing Interlacing of warp Interlooping of yarns Formation of fabric by
Method and weft yarns on a using needles or bonding fibers together
loom. machines. mechanically

Equipment A loom-could be Needles - could be Heat bonding,

Required a handloom or hand knitting or Spunbond, Meltblown,
automatic loom. machine knitting Hydroentangling, Air-
laid machines etc.
Properties Structured, uniform, Stretchy, wrinkle May be durable,
firm, smooth, stable, resistant, flexible, limp absorbent, or disposable
and often reversible. fit the body and often depending on type.
more elastic.
Characteristics Woven patterns, Stretchability, Absorbent, drapable,
durability, defined breathability, softness, lack defined grain or
edges, and drape. and loopiness. texture, and lightweight.
Strength Generally stronger Tends to be less strong Varies depending on
due to the interlacing compared to weaving. manufacturing process
of yarns. and fiber type.
Warmth Can provide good Can trap air between May offer warmth but
insulation due to its loops, providing varies based on thickness
density. warmth. and composition.
Breathability May be less breathable More breathable due Varies; some types may
due to tight interlacing. to the looped structure. offer good breathability.
Stretch Typically has minimal Known for its Varies; some types may
stretch, depending on stretchiness, offering have stretch properties.
yarn type. comfort.
Drape Often has a more Generally has a softer, Offers a soft, flexible
structured drape due flowing drape. drape.
to its stability.

Clothes Shirts, pants, dresses, T-shirts, sweaters, Surgical gowns, face

jackets, and suits. socks, and leggings. masks, diapers, and
wipes.
Applications Clothing, upholstery, Sportswear, Hygiene products,
linens, and structured undergarments, and medical textiles, and
items. loungewear. filtration media.
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4. CROCHETING
Crocheting is a process of creating fabric from yarn using a crochet hook. The word
is derived from the French word “crochet”, meaning ‘hook’. Crocheting consists of
pulling loops of yarn through other loops. Crochet differs from knitting in a way
that in crocheting only one loop is active at one time and a crochet hook is used
instead of knitting needles.

Properties
1. Crocheting produces a distinct texture that can range from dense to lacy.
2. Crocheted fabrics are flexible and can be easily shaped.
3. They are durable and can withstand wear and tear.
4. Allows for a wide range of patterns and designs.
5. Provides good insulation for warmth.
6. Accommodates complex color work and pattern styles.
7. Easy to repair individual stitches without affecting the whole piece.
Uses- Crochet is more suitable than knitting for joining pieces of fabric. Finishing of
knit patterns for sweaters may incorporate crochet. Borders and surface embellishment
can be added by crocheting. Crocheting is used for making various clothes like
skirts, tops, and frocks.

Fig-5.8: Crocheting done with Crochet Hook

5. FELTING
Felt is a non-woven cloth made by interlocking wool fibres under heat, moisture, and
pressure. It is formed by carding, cutting, and superimposing wool webs into batts.
The fibres are then heated, pressured, and cooled before being filled and drained.
56

Properties
1. Felt has no warp and weft, so it can be cut in any direction.
2. It does not fray.
3. It has poor drapability.
4. Since it is made only from fibres, it has poor tensile strength.
5. It has good shape retains ion and can be cut easily in any shape.
6. It has no stretchability and elasticity.
7. Wool felt is highly thermal insulating, hence, provide warmth.
8. Felt have good sound absorption therefore use to make sound proof halls.
Uses- Felt is not suitable for making dress material because of low tensile strength.
It is used for making jackets, hats, blazes, slippers, shoe- in soles, rugs, padding for
tables and insulating materials.

6. BRAIDING
Braided fabrics are created in a fashion similar to braiding of hair. Braiding is a
technique that involves interlacing together three or more strands of yarn, thread, or
other materials to form a narrow, elongated structure. Unlike weaving, which uses a
warp and a weft, braiding interlaces the strands diagonally to create a cohesive and
often decorative fabric.
Properties
1. Due to the interlacing of several strands, braided structures are often strong and durable.
2. They are appropriate for load-bearing applications due to their high tensile strength.
3. Adaptable and able to bend without breaking.
4. Braiding produces an aesthetically pleasing pattern that is consistent and uniform.
5. Braided objects may have some elasticity, depending on the materials used.
6. Suited for high-friction applications due to their wear and abrasion resistance.
7. Usually light, adding very little bulk.
8. Products gain a decorative element from the complex textures and patterns of braids.
Uses- Braiding is used in various industries, including fashion, jewelry, home textiles,
industrial applications, medical devices, sports equipment, and automotive and
aerospace. It provides durable laces for shoes, jewelry, belts, and decorative items, and
is used in ropes, cables, hoses, surgical instruments, fishing lines, nets, and fuel lines.
 57

Fig. 5.9: Braiding

Conclusion
This document discussed the various methods of fabric construction, including
weaving, knitting, bonding, and other types like felting, crocheting, and braiding.
Weaving is the process of interlacing warp and weft threads at right angles to form
plain, twill, or satin weaves. Knitting involves the interlocking of yarn loops and
can be weft or warp knitting. Bonding is the process of joining synthetic fibre webs
using heat or adhesives. Felting mats are made by applying moisture, heat, and
pressure to wool fibres. Crocheting involves creating fabric by interlocking loops
of yarn with a crochet hook, producing a flexible and textured material. Braiding
interlaces multiple strands diagonally, creating strong and decorative structures. The
construction method determines how the fabric looks, feels, and performs.
In conclusion, the methods of fabric construction—whether weaving, knitting,
bonding, felting, crocheting, or braiding—each offer unique benefits and characteristics,
shaping the final fabric’s appearance, texture, and functionality. These techniques not
only influence the fabric’s durability and performance but also its aesthetic appeal
and suitability for different applications. As we look to the future, advancements in
fabric construction techniques and materials, including sustainable and smart textiles,
promise to revolutionize the textile industry. By understanding and innovating within
these traditional and modern methods, we can create fabrics that meet the evolving
needs of fashion, industry, and technology, paving the way for a more functional
and sustainable textile future.

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