FILTRATION

Solid - liquid filtration is a unit operation in which the insoluble solid

component of a solid-liquid suspension is separated from the liquid
component by passing the latter through a porous medium which
retains the solid particles on its upstream surface. Filtration is used to
clarify small amounts of particles (for example wine, beer and oils) or
to separate liquids from the solid part of the food by cake filtration
(for example fruit juices).

THEORY
When a suspension passes through a filter, the first particles of solid
to encounter the filter medium become enmeshed in it, as a result,
reduce the area through which the liquid can flow and increasing the
resistance it offers to the flow. As filtration proceeds, a layer of solids
build up on the upstream face of the medium and forms a cake whose
thickness increases with time. The increase in resistance to flow
requires a higher pressure difference across the filter medium to
maintain the flow rate of the filtrate.
The total pressure drop a cross filter is given by:
 p  pc  pm (1)
where p = total pressure drop across the filter, Pa
pc = pressure drop across the cake, Pa
pm = pressure drop across the medium, Pa

FILTER CAKE RESISTANCE

The pressure drop across the cake is related to the flow rate of the
filtrate by:
 wV  dV 
 pc    (2)
A2  dt 
Where  = dynamic viscosity of filtrate kg/ms
w = mass of solids deposited on the medium/unit volume of
filtrate
V = volume of filtrate delivered in time t.
A = filter area normal to the direction of flow of filtrate.
 = specific resistance of the cake. m/Kg

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There are two types of cake:

Incompressible
The particles of the cake are non-deformable and rigid, e.g. sand
which form porous cake,  is independent of -pc and does not vary
throughout the depth of the cake.
 is related to the properties of the cake by:
k 1  X S0
2
 (3)
X 3 s
where X = porosity of the cake, i.e. fraction of the total volume
that is void.
S0 = specific surface area of the solids in the cake (surface area
per unit volume)
s = density of the solids
k = constant (5 for random packed particles of definite size and
shape)

Compressible
The particles of the cake are soft, deformable and non-rigid,  is
dependent on -pc and varies throughout the depth of the cake. Since
 varies throughout the depth of a compressible cake, an average
value for the specific resistance of the cake must be used in equation
(2).  is highest near the filter medium and lowest on top surface of
the cake.  has to be determined from experiment.

FILTER MEDIUM RESISTANCE

The filter medium resistance is defined by:
Rm  dV 
 pm    (4)
A  dt 

Where Rm = constant = filter medium resistance, m-1.

Rm is determined experimentally. By combining equations (1), (2) and
(4), the general expression for the rate of flow of filtrate is obtained
as:
dV A p 
 (5)
dt  wV 
  Rm 
 A 

Where dV / dt = volumetric flow rate.

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FILTERING CONDITIONS
Two major filtering conditions:

1. Constant Pressure filtration

-p = constant, dV/dt will vary with time.
Equation (5) is integrated from 0 to t and 0 to V to give the general
expression for the filtration time during constant pressure filtration
as:
  w  V  2  V 
t     Rm    (6)
 p   2  A   A 
Where t = time required to deliver volume V of filtrate.

Determination of  and Rm
Equation (5) can be rearranged and written in the form of a straight
line as:
dt
 KV  B (7)
dV
Where K is the slope,
 w
K (8)
A2  p 
and B is the intercept,
Rm
B (9)
A p 
Thus if a constant pressure filtration is carried out and values of V for
various values of t recorded, a graph of dt / dV versus V can be
constructed. The line has a slope K and the intercept on the ordinate
when V = 0 is B. Values of  and Rm can thus be determined from
equations (8) and (9).

1.1 Incompressible cake

 is independent of (-p). Use  and Rm as they are.

1.2 Compressible cake

 is dependent on (-p). The relationship between  and (-p) needs
to be determined experimentally by carrying out filtration runs at at
least two different constant pressures. Empirical equations are then
fitted to results obtained. The following two equations are used:

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    0  p s (10)
and

   0 ' 1    p  s
'
 (11)
Where 0 , 0’, s, s’ and  are emphirical constants.
Equation (10) is more common but (11) is applicable over a wider
range of pressure drops.

2. Constant Rate Filtration

Pressure increases to maintain a constant rate.
2.1 Incompressible cake
dV V
= constant = (12)
dt t
Equation (5) may be re-written as:
  wV   VRm 
 p   2
V    (13)
 At   A t 
or
- p  K 'V  B ' (14)
Equation (14) is a straight line if –p is plotted against V. The slope of
the line is K’ and the intercept to the –p axis when V = 0 is B’.  and
Rm are determined by experiment and equation ( 13) used for cycle
calculations.

2.2 Compressible cake

Pressure changes and  changes.  and –pc must be determined by
experiment. Assume equation (10) holds, equation (2) may be
modified to:
 pc 1 s   p  pm 1 s   0 wV
2
V
(15)
A t
which may be written as:
 p  pm 1 s  K "t (16)
where
 0 w  V 
2

K"   (17)
A2  t 

WASHING OF CAKE
This done by substituting the wash liquid for the feed slurry at the
end of filtration. The properties of the wash liquid are approximately
the same as the filtrate and therefore the rate of washing is almost the

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same as the final rate of flow of filtrate. The washing is normally done
at constant pressure and the rate of washing therefore is at a
constant rate. There is no build-up of cake.

FILTER MEDIA
The main functions of the filter medium are:
1 to promote formation of cake rapidly while offering minimum
resistance to flow
2 to support the cake.
The medium has to be strong enough to support the cake, stable over
a wide range of temperature and acidity, must be non-toxic and
chemically compatible with the material being filtered.

Types of Media
Filter media may be rigid or flexible.
Rigid Media: Loose type such as sand and/gravel, diatomaceous
earth or charcoal. They are seldom used alone in the food
industry.
Fixed type such as porous carbon, porcelain, fused
alumina, perforated metal plates, rigid wire meshes. These
media are available in the form of plates, discs, tubes and
other shapes.
Flexible Media: Woven type such as cotton, silk, wool and jute. Many
synthetic materials are also used such as nylon,
polypropylene, polythene, polyvinylchloride and co-
polymers and terylene. Glass fibre and flexible metal
meshes are also used.
Non-woven type including cotton and wood fibres
and paper pulp are used. These are available in
preformed pads of various shapes. Asbestos is no
longer accepted as a filter media.

FILTER AIDS
If the solids to be filtered are very fine, or slimy and highly
compressible, the filter medium clogs quickly and only short runs are
possible. In such cases materials known as filter aids are used. The
cake obtained with a filter aids is not going to be used. The filter aids
are made of inert rigid particles such as diatomaceous earth and sand
of irregular shapes. These open up the cake and keep the resistance

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low. They may be applied by mixing with the feed slurry or they may
be suspended in a clear liquid (filtrate) and then passed through the
filter so that a pre-coating of the filter aid builds up on the medium.

FILTRATION EQUIPMENT

The basic requirements for filtration equipment are:

mechanical support for the filter medium,
flow accesses to and from the filter medium and
provision for removing excess filter cake.

In some instances, washing of the filter cake to remove traces of the

solution may be necessary. Pressure can be provided on the
upstream side of the filter, or a vacuum can be drawn downstream, or
both can be used to drive the wash fluid through.

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 FIG. 10.8 Filtration equipment: (a) plate and frame press (b) rotary
vacuum filter (c) centrifugal filter

Plate and frame filter press

In the plate and frame filter press, a cloth or mesh is spread out over
plates which support the cloth along ridges but at the same time leave
a free area, as large as possible, below the cloth for flow of the filtrate.
This is illustrated in Fig. 10.8(a). The plates with their filter cloths may
be horizontal, but they are more usually hung vertically with a number
of plates operated in parallel to give sufficient area.

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Filter cake builds up on the upstream side of the cloth that is the side
away from the plate. In the early stages of the filtration cycle, the
pressure drop across the cloth is small and filtration proceeds at
more or less a constant rate. As the cake increases, the process
becomes more and more a constant-pressure one and this is the case
throughout most of the cycle. When the available space between
successive frames is filled with cake, the press has to be dismantled
and the cake scraped off and cleaned, after which a further cycle can
be initiated.

The plate and frame filter press is cheap but it is difficult to

mechanize to any great extent. Variants of the plate and frame press
have been developed which allow easier discharging of the filter cake.
For example, the plates, which may be rectangular or circular, are
supported on a central hollow shaft for the filtrate and the whole
assembly enclosed in a pressure tank containing the slurry. Filtration
can be done under pressure or vacuum. The advantage of vacuum
filtration is that the pressure drop can be maintained whilst the cake
is still under atmospheric pressure and so can be removed easily. The
disadvantages are the greater costs of maintaining a given pressure
drop by applying a vacuum and the limitation on the vacuum to about
80 kPa maximum. In pressure filtration, the pressure driving force is
limited only by the economics of attaining the pressure and by the
mechanical strength of the equipment.

Rotary filters

In rotary filters, the flow passes through a rotating cylindrical cloth

from which the filter cake can be continuously scraped. Either
pressure or vacuum can provide the driving force, but a particularly
useful form is the rotary vacuum filter. In this, the cloth is supported
on the periphery of a horizontal cylindrical drum that dips into a bath
of the slurry. Vacuum is drawn in those segments of the drum surface
on which the cake is building up. A suitable bearing applies the
vacuum at the stage where the actual filtration commences and
breaks the vacuum at the stage where the cake is being scraped off
after filtration. Filtrate is removed through trunnion bearings. Rotary
vacuum filters are expensive, but they do provide a considerable

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degree of mechanization and convenience. A rotary vacuum filter is
illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 10.8(b).

Centrifugal filters

Centrifugal force is used to provide the driving force in some filters.

These machines are really centrifuges fitted with a perforated bowl
that may also have filter cloth on it. Liquid is fed into the interior of
the bowl and under the centrifugal forces, it passes out through the
filter material. This is illustrated in Fig. 10.8(c).

Air filters

Filters are used quite extensively to remove suspended dust or

particles from air streams. The air or gas moves through a fabric and
the dust is left behind. These filters are particularly useful for the
removal of fine particles. One type of bag filter consists of a number
of vertical cylindrical cloth bags 15-30 cm in diameter, the air passing
through the bags in parallel. Air bearing the dust enters the bags,
usually at the bottom and the air passes out through the cloth. A
familiar example of a bag filter for dust is to be found in the domestic
vacuum cleaner. Some designs of bag filters provide for the
mechanical removal of the accumulated dust. For removal of particles
less than 5 mm diameter in modern air sterilization units, paper filters
and packed tubular filters are used. These cover the range of sizes of
bacterial cells and spores.

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