Units & Measurements

Physics is the study of nature and its laws. Feynman has given a wonderful description of what is "understanding the

nature". Suppose we do not know the rules of chess but are allowed to watch the moves of the players. If we watch
the game for a long time, we may make out some of the rules. With the knowledge of these rules we may try to

understand why a player played a particular move. However, this may be a very difficult task. Even if we know all the

rules of chess, it is not so simple to understand all the complications of a game in a given situation and predict the

correct move. Knowing the basic rules is, however, the minimum requirement if any progress is to be made.

One may guess at a wrong rule by partially watching the game. The experienced player may make use of a rule for

the first time and the observer of the game may get surprised. Because of the new move some of the rules guessed

at may prove to be wrong and the observer will frame new rules.

Physics goes the same way. The nature around us is like a big chess game played by Nature. The events in the nature
are like the moves of the great game. We are allowed to watch the events of nature and guess at the basic rules

according to which the events take place. We may come across new events which do not follow the rules guessed

earlier and we may have to declare the old rules inapplicable or wrong and discover new rules.

Physical quantities:

All quantities that can be measured and used to define laws of nature are called physical quantities. eg. time, length,

mass, force, work done, etc. In physics we study about physical quantities and their inter relationship.

Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Its Numerical value) (unit) = (n) (u)

Magnitude of a physical quantity always remains constant, it will not change if we express it in some other unit. So

1
n
u

1
numerical value 
unit

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Units & Measurements

Measurement:
Measurement is the comparison of a quantity with a standard of the same physical quantity.
There are two type of physical quantities.
(i) Fundamental quantities (ii) Derived quantities

(i) Fundamental (Basic) Quantities :

● These are the elementary quantities which cover the entire span of physics.
● Any other quantity can be derived from these.
● All the basic quantities are chosen such that they are independent of each other. (i.e., distance (d), time (t)
d
and velocity (v) cannot be chosen as basic quantities, because they are related as V = . An International
t
Organization named CGPM : General Conference on weight and Measures, chose seven physical quantities
as basic or fundamental.

These are the elementary quantities (in our planet) that’s why chosen as basic quantities.
In fact, any set of independent quantities can be chosen as basic quantities by which all other physical quantities can
be derived.
i.e.,

Can be chosen as basic quantities (on some other planet, these might also be used as basic quantities)
But

cannot be used as basic quantities as

Area = (Length)2 so they are not independent.

(ii) Derived Quantities:

Physical quantities which depend upon fundamental quantities or which can be derived from fundamental
quantities are known as derived quantities.
Examples :- Volume, Pressure, Density etc.

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Units & Measurements

Units:
All physical quantities are measured w.r.t. standard magnitude of the same physical quantity and these standards are
called UNITS. eg. second, meter, kilogram, etc.
So, the four basic properties of units are:
1. They must be well defined.
2. They should be easily available and reproducible.
3. They should be invariable e.g. step as a unit of length is not invariable.
4. They should be accepted by all.

FPS (Foot Pound Second) or British Engineering system:

In this system length, mass and time are taken as fundamental quantities and their base units are foot (ft), pound (lb)
and second (s) respectively.

CGS (Centimeter Gram Second) or Gaussian system:

In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time and their respective units are centimetre (cm),
gram (g) and second (s).

MKS (Meter Kilogram Second) system:

In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time but their fundamental units are metre (m),
kilogram (kg) and second (s) respectively.

International system (SI) of units:

This system is modification over the MKS system, so it is also known as Rationalised MKS system. Besides the three
base units of MKS system four fundamental and two supplementary units are also included in this system.

Classification of Units
The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows :

Fundamental or base units:

The units of fundamental quantities are called base units. In SI there are seven base units.

[Link]. Physical quantity SI unit Symbol

1. Length metre m

2. Mass kilogram kg

3. Time second s

4. Temperature Kelvin K

5. Electric current ampere A

6. Luminous intensity candela cd

7. Amount of substance mole mol

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Units & Measurements

Derived units:
The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of the base units are called derived units
eg. → Area =  × b = m2

Volume = × b × h = m3

M kg
Density = = = kg/m3 = kg – m–3
V m3
m
Force = M × a = kg × = kg-m-s–2
s2
Force kg-m-s2
Pressure = = = kg-m–1-s–2
Area m2

Illustration 1:
Find the unit of speed.
Solution:
unit of distance metre
Unit of speed = = =ms-1
unit of time second
Some derived units are named in honour of great scientists.
● Unit of force – newton (N)  (kgms–2)
● Unit of frequency – hertz (Hz)  (s–1) etc.

Supplementary units:
The units defined for the supplementary quantities namely plane angle and solid angle are called the supplementary
units. The unit for plane angle is radian and the unit for the solid angle is steradian.

Dimensions:
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities must be raised to represent
the given physical quantity.

Illustration 2:
Find the dimensions of force
Where, Force (Quantity) = mass × acceleration
Solution:
Force (Quantity) = mass × acceleration
velocity length
= mass × = mass ×
time (time)2
= mass × length × (time)–2
So, dimensions of force : 1 in mass
1 in length
–2 in time

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Units & Measurements

Dimensional formula:
The physical quantity that is expressed in terms of the base quantities is enclosed in square brackets to remind that
the equation is among the dimensions and not among the magnitudes. Thus, above equation may be written as
[force]= [MLT–2].

Such an expression for a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities is called the dimensional formula. Thus, the
dimensional formula of force is [MLT–2]. The two versions given below are equivalent and are used interchangeably.

(a) The dimensional formula of force is [MLT–2].

(b) The dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and –2 in time.

The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is that expression which represents how and which of the base
quantities are included in that quantity.

a. Mass → M

b. Length → L

c. Time → T

d. Temp. → , K

e. Current → I, A

f. Amount of substance → Mol

Illustration 3:

Find dimensional formula of power.

Solution:

Energy Work kg-m2- s−2

Power (P) = = =
Time Time s

M 1L2T −2
= = kg-m2-s–3
T1

= [M1L2T–3]

Illustration 4:

Torque is defined as moment of force and is given by

Torque = force × perpendicular distance

Find dimensional formula of Torque.

Solution:

Torque,  (Tau) = Force × Distance

= kg-m-s–2 × m

= kg-m2-s–2

= [M1L2T–2]

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Units & Measurements

Illustration 5:
Find dimensional formula of Angular momentum.
Solution:

Angular Momentum (L) = M × V × r

= kg-m-s–1-m

Unit Dimension = kg-m2-s–1

= [M1L2T–1]

Illustration 6:

Find dimensions of coefficient of viscosity. Viscous force is given by

Fv = 6rv

Where, Fv= Viscous force

 = coefficient of viscosity

r = radius of sphere

v = velocity of object

Solution:

Coefficient of Viscosity ()

Fv 
 =  
 6 rV 

 MLT −2 
=
 L LT −1 

=  ML−1T −1 

Illustration 7:

Find dimensional formula of pressure.

Solution:

Force
Pressure (P) =
Area

M 1L1T −2
=
L2

Dimension of P = [M1L–1T–2]

Unit = kg-m–1-s–2 = 1 pascal

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Units & Measurements

Illustration 8:

Surface tension of a liquid is defined as force on imaginary line per unit length. Find its dimensional formula.

Solution:
Force
Surface Tension (S) =
Length

M 1L1T −2
=
L
Dimension of (S) = [M1L0T–2]
Unit = kg-s–2

Illustration 9:
Find dimensional formula for universal gravitational constant.
Solution:
Universal Gravitational Constant (G)
GM
g=
r2

gr 2
G=
M

ms−2 m2
G=
kg
G = [M–1L3T–2]
Unit of G = kg–1-m3-s–2

Units and Dimensions of Physical Quantities

Quantity Common Symbol SI unit Dimension

Displacement s METRE (m) L

Mass m, M KILOGRAM (kg) M

Time t SECOND (s) T

Area A m2 L2

Volume V m3 L3

Density  kg/m3 M/L3

Velocity v, u m/s L/T

Acceleration a m/s2 L/T2

Force F newton (N) ML/T2

Work W joule (J) (=N – m) ML2/T2

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Units & Measurements

Quantity Common Symbol SI unit Dimension

Energy E, U, K joule (J) ML2/T2

Power P watt (W) (=J/s) ML2/T3

Momentum p kg-m/s ML/T

Gravitational constant G N-m2/kg2 L3/MT2

Angle ,  radian

Angular velocity  radian/s T–1

Angular acceleration  radian/s2 T–2

Angular momentum L kg-m2/s ML2/T

Moment of inertia I kg-m2 ML2

Torque  N-m ML2/T2

Angular frequency  radian/s T–1

Frequency  hertz (Hz) T–1

Period T s T

Young's modulus Y N/m2 M/LT2

Bulk modulus B N/m2 M/LT2

Shear modulus  N/m2 M/LT2

Surface tension S N/m M/T2

Coefficient of viscosity  N-s/m2 M/LT

Pressure P, p N/m2, Pa M/LT2

Wavelength  m L

Intensity of wave I W/m2 M/T3

Temperature T KELVIN (K) K

Specific heat capacity c J/kg–K L2/T2K

Stefan's constant  W/m2–K4 M/T3K4

Heat Q J ML2/T2

Thermal conductivity K W/m–K ML/T3K

Illustration 10:
(a) Can there be a physical quantity which has no unit and dimensions

(b) Can a physical quantity have unit without having dimensions

Solution:
(a) Yes, strain

(b) Yes, angle with unit radian

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Units & Measurements

Illustration 11:
If velocity (V), time (T) and force (F) were chosen as basic quantities, find the dimensions of mass.
Solution:
Dimensionally :
Force = mass × acceleration
velocity
Force = mass ×
time
Force × time
Mass =
velocity

[Mass] = [FTV–1]

Principle of homogeneity
Two physical quantities having same dimensions can be added or subtracted but there is no such restriction in
division and multiplication.

● Suppose in any formula, (L + ) term is coming (where L is length). As length can be added only with a
length, so  should also be a kind of length.

So [] = [L]

● Similarly consider a term (F – ) where F is force. A force can be added/subtracted with a force only and give
rise to a third force. So  should be a kind of force and its result (F – ) should also be a kind of force.

Illustration 12:
 
= Fv + 2 .
t2 x
Find dimensional formula for [] and [] (here t = time, F = force, v = velocity, x = distance).
Solution:
Since dimension of Fv = [Fv] =[M1L1T–2] [L1T–1] = [M1L2T – 3],


so  x 2  should also be [M L T ]
1 2 –3
 

[]
= [M1 L2T–3] ; [] = [M1L4T – 3]
[x2 ]

 
and Fv + x 2  will also have dimension M L T , so L.H.S. should also have the same dimension M L T
1 2 –3 1 2 –3
 
[ ]
so = [M1L2T – 3] [] = [M1L2T – 1]
[t 2 ]

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Units & Measurements

Key Points about Dimension

(i) Angles and trigonometric functions are 'Dimensionless' 'Quantities'.
Proof : Angle are 'dimensionless' [] = M0L0T0

 =  s  =  Arc length  = L = L0

 r   Radius length  L

Proof : 'Trigonometric' functions are dimensionless as they are angle function.

 [] = M0L0T0
[sin] = M0L0T0

Illustration 13:
cos(x), where x = distance
Tell the dimension of .
Solution:
 [x] = [M0L0T0] =1 (Trigonometric function)
[] [x] = [M0L0T0] =1

or    =  L−1 

Illustration 14:
 kx 
sin  
 t 
Find the dimension of k where x = distance.
Solution:
 kx 
sin  
 t 
[k] = [TL–1]

(ii) All exponents are 'Dimensionless' (Base should be a numerical value).

[–t2] = [M0L0T0]=1 (Both base and exponent must be dimensionless)

2
e −t 

e−t  = [M0L0T0]
2

(iii) Logarithm functions and its argument are dimensionless.

log(a)  [a] = [M0L0T0]=1
[log a] = [M0L0T0]

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Units & Measurements

Illustration 15:
F
= sin (t) (Here v = velocity, F = force, t = time). Find the dimension of  and .
v2
Solution:

[F ] [M 1 L1T −2 ]
So [] = 2
= = M1L –1T0
[v ] [L1T −1 ]2

Illustration 16:
Fv2  2 
= loge  2  ; Where F = force, v = velocity. Find the dimensions of  and .
2  v 
Solution:

[2][]
 =1
[v 2 ]

[1][]
 =1  [] = [L2T – 2]
 L2T −2 
[F ][v 2 ] [M1L1T −2 ][L2T −2 ]
as [] =  [] =  [] = [M1L – 1 T0]
[2 ] [L2T −2 ]2

Illustration 17:
The time dependence of physical quantity P is found to be of the form
2
P = P0e−t

Where ‘t’ is the time and  is some constant.

Then the constant  will
(A) be dimensionless (B) have dimensions of T–2
(C) have dimensions of P (D) have dimensions of P multiplied by T–2
Ans. (B)
Solution:
Since in ex, x is dimensionless
 t2 should be dimensionless
[t2] = [M0L0T0]
[] = [M0L0T–2]

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Units & Measurements

Applications of dimensional analysis:

First application
To find the dimensions of unknown physical quantities.

Illustration 18:
Using the theory of dimensions, determine the dimensions of constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ in Vander Wall’s equation
 a 
 P + V 2  (V – b) = RT.
 
Solution:
a
must have the same dimensions as that of P (because it is added to P)
V2

Dimension of b must be same as that of V.

[a ]
= [ML–1T–2]
L6

[a] = [ML5T–2]

[b] = [L3]

Second Application:
To check correctness of an equation using principle of homogeneity of dimension :

Principle of homogeneity : According to this, only same physical quantities can be added or subtracted

eg. (i) x=A  B  [x] = [A] = [B]

1 2
s = ut + at
2
  
L LT −1T LT −2T 2
=L =L

 dimensionally correct

Illustration 19:
Find the correct relation

mv2 mv2
F= or
r2 r
Solution:

Checking the dimensional correctness of relation

mv2
F=
r2

[L.H.S.] = [MLT–2]

 M ( LT −1 )2 
[R.H.S]. =  = [ML0T–2] ; [LHS]  [RHS]
 L2 

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Units & Measurements

Mv2
F=
r

[LHS] = [MLT–2]

M (LT −1 )2 
[RHS] =  = [MLT–2] ; [LHS] = [RHS]
 L

Hence dimensionally second relation is correct.

Limitation :

Every physically correct equation must be correct dimensionally, but dimensionally correct equation may or may not
be correct physically.

Illustration 20:
Check whether this equation may be correct or not.

3 Fv2
Pr =
2t 2 x
Solution:

3 Fv2
Pressure Pr = (where Pr = Pressure, F = force , v = velocity , t = time , x = distance)
2t 2 x
Dimension of L.H.S = [Pr] = [M1L– 1T – 2]

[3] [F] [v2 ] [M1L1T-2 ] [L2T-2 ]

Dimension of R.H.S = = = [M1L2T – 6]
[2 ] [t 2 ] [x] [T 2 ] [L]

Dimension of L.H.S and R.H.S are not same. So, the relation cannot be correct.

Note:
Sometimes a question is asked which is beyond our syllabus, then certainly it must be the question of dimensional
analyses.

Third Application
To derive relationship between different physical quantities:

Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions, new relations among physical quantities can be derived if
the dependent quantities are known.

Illustration 21:
It is known that the time of revolution T of a satellite around the earth depends on the universal gravitational
constant G, the mass of the earth M, and the radius of the circular orbit R. Obtain an expression for T using
dimensional analysis.
Solution:
We have [T] = [G]a [M]b [R]c
[M]0 [L]0 [T]1 = [M]–a [L]3a [T]–2a × [M]b × [L]c = [M]b–a [L]c+3a [T]–2a

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Units & Measurements

Comparing the exponents

1
For [T] : 1 = –2a  a = –
2
1
For [M] : 0 = b – a  b = a = –
2
3
For [L] : 0 = c + 3a  c = –3a =
2

R3 R3
Putting the values, we get T = G–1/2 M–1/2 R3/2 = T= K (Where K is proportionality constant)
GM GM

R3
So, the actual expression is T = 2 (Experimentally K=2).
GM

Illustration 22:
When a small sphere moves at low speed through a fluid, the viscous force F opposing the motion, is found
experimentally to depend on the radius ‘r’, the velocity v of the sphere and the viscosity  of the fluid. Find the force
F (Stoke’s law).
Solution:
F = f ( ; r ; v)
F = k . x. ry. vz
[F] = [x. [r]y. [v]z
[MLT–2] = [ML–1T–1]x [L]y [LT–1]z
[MLT–2] = [Mx L–x + y + z T–x–z]
Comparing coefficients
x = 1 , –x + y + z = 1 ; – x – z = – 2
x=y=z=1
so, F = kvr

F = 6vr (As through experiments : k = 6)

Illustration 23:
If velocity (V), force (F) and time (T) are chosen as fundamental quantities, express (i) mass and (ii) energy in terms of
V, F and T.
Solution:
Let M = (some Number) (V)a (F)b (T)c
Equating dimensions of both the sides
[M1L0T0] = [L1T–1]a [M1L1T - 2]b [T1]c
[M1L0T0] = [MbLa + b T– a – 2b + c]
Get a = – 1, b = 1, c = 1
M = (Some Number) (V–1 F1 T1)  [M] = [V–1 F1 T1]

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Units & Measurements

Similarly, we can also express energy in terms of V, F, T

Let [E] = [some Number] [V]a [F]b [T]c
 [ML2T–2] = [M0L0T0] [LT–1]a [MLT–2]b [T]c
 [M1L2T–2] = [Mb La + b T–a – 2b + c]
 1 = b; 2 = a + b ; – 2 = –a – 2b + c
Get a =1 ; b = 1 ; c = 1
 E = (some Number) V1F1T1 or [E] = [V1][F1][T1].

Illustration 24:
In a new system, force (F), momentum (p) and length (L) are taken as fundamental quantities. Find dimension of
energy in this new system ?
Solution:
E = k Fa pb Lc
[M1 L2 T–2] = [M1 L1 T–2]a [M1 L1 T–1]b [L]c
[M1 L2 T–2] = [Ma + b La + b + c T–2a – b]
By comparing
1=a+b ….(i)
2=a+b+c ….(ii)
2 = 2a + b ….(iii)
From equation (i), (ii) and (iii)
 a=1
b=0
c=1
So, E = k F1 P0 L1
E=kFL

Conversion of units
If units are u1, u2 & u3 and numerical values of physical quantity are n1, n2 & n3 then,
n1u1 = n2u2 = n3u3
nu = constant
for example : 1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm
When unit become smaller, numerical value increase.

Illustration 25:
Find value of 1N in C.G.S. system.
Solution:

n1u1 = n2u2
kg − m g − cm
1 = n2
s2 s2

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Units & Measurements

kg m s2
n2 = 1
g cm s2

n2 = 105

kg-m g-cm
1 = 105
sec2 sec2

Newton dyne

1 N = 105 dyne e

Illustration 26:

Find the value of 1 Joule energy in C.G.S. system.

Solution:
[E] = [M1L2T–2]
n1u1 = n2u2

kg − m2 g − cm2
1 = n2
s2 s2

kg m2 s2
n2 = 1
g cm2 s2
2
103 g  100cm 
n2 = 1  
g  cm 

n2 = 103 × 104
n2 = 107

kg-m2 g-cm2
1 = 107
s2 s2

Joule Erg

1 Joule = 107 Erg g

Illustration 27:

Convert G from SI system to C.G.S. system.

Dimensional formula = [M–1L3T–2]

Universal gravitational constant G is given as

m3
G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
kg.s 2

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Units & Measurements

Solution:
(100cm)3
G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
1000 g .(1s)2
106 cm3
G = 6.67 × 10–11 ×
103 g.s2

cm3
G = 6.67 × 10-8
g.s2

Conversion of a Quantity from a Given System to New Hypothetical System

Illustration 28:
In a particular system, the unit of length, mass and time are chosen to be 10cm, 10gm and 0.1s respectively. The unit
of force in this system will be equivalent to
1
(A) N (B) 1N (C) 10N (D) 100 N
10
Ans. (A)
Solution:
Dimensionally
[F] = [MLT–2]
In C.G.S system
1 dyne = 1g 1 cm (1s)–2
In new system
1x = (10g) (10 cm) (0.1s)–2
−2
1 dyne 1g 1 cm  10 s 
= ×
1x 10 g 10cm  1s 
1
1 dyne = × 1x
10,000
104 dyne = 1x
10 x = 105 dyne = 1 N
1
x= N
10

Illustration 29:
If the units of length and force are increased four times, then the unit of energy will
(A) increase 8 times (B) increase 16 times
(C) decreases 16 times (D) increase 4 times
Ans. (B)
Solution:
Dimensionally
[E] = [ML2T–2]
[E] = [MLT–2] [L]
E' = (4) (MLT–2) (4L)
E' = 16 (ML2T–2)

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Units & Measurements

Limitations of dimensional analysis

● It yields only empirical formula

From Dimensional analysis we get T = (Some Number)

g

So, the expression of T can be

T=2 T= sin (.....)

g g

or or

T = 50 T= log (......)
g g

or or

T = 2 T= + (t0)
g g

● Dimensional analysis doesn’t give information about the “some Number”.

● This method is useful only when a physical quantity depends on other quantities by multiplication and power
relations.
(i.e., f = xa yb zc)
It fails if a physical quantity depends on sum or difference of two quantities
(i.e., f = x + y – z)
i.e., we cannot get the relation
1 2
S = ut + at from dimensional analysis.
2
● This method will not work if a quantity depends on another quantity as sine or cosine, logarithmic or
exponential relation. The method works only if the dependence is by power functions.
● In mechanics, we equate the powers of M, L and T hence we get only three equations. So, we can have only
three variables (only three dependent quantities)
So dimensional analysis will work only if the quantity depends only on three parameters, not more than that.

Trigonometry
Angle:
Consider a revolving line OP.

Suppose that it revolves in anticlockwise direction starting from its initial position OX .

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Units & Measurements

The angle is defined as the amount of revolution that the revolving line makes with its initial position.
From fig. the angle covered by the revolving line OP is  = POX
The angle
is taken positive if it is traced by the revolving line in anticlockwise direction and
is taken negative if it is covered in clockwise direction.
1° = 60' (minute)
1' = 60" (second)

1 right angle = 90° (degrees) also 1 right angle = rad (radian)
2
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of the circle, whose length is equal to the radius of
180
the circle. 1 rad = = 57.3°



To convert an angle from degree to radian multiply it by
180
180
To convert an angle from radian to degree multiply it by


Illustration 30:
A circular arc is of length  cm. Find angle subtended by it at the centre in radian and degree.

Solution:
s  cm 
= = = rad
r 6 cm 6
180
As, 1 rad =

 180
So, =  = 30
6 

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Units & Measurements

Illustration 31:
When a clock shows 4 o'clock, how much angle do its minute and hour needles make?
 2
(A) 120° (B) rad (C) rad (D) 160°
3 3
Ans. (AC)
Solution:

2
From diagram angle  = 4  30 = 120 = rad
3

Trigonometric ratios (or T ratios)

Let two fixed lines XOX' and YOY' intersect at right angles to each other at point O.
Then,
(i) Point O is called origin.
(ii) XOX' is known as X-axis and YOY' as Y-axis.
(iii) Portions XOY, YOX', X'OY' and Y'OX are called I, II, III and IV quadrants respectively.
Consider that the revolving line OP has traced out angle  (in I quadrant) in anticlockwise direction. From P, draw
perpendicular PM on OX. Then, side OP (in front of right angle) is called hypotenuse, side MP (in front of angle ) is
called opposite side or perpendicular and side OM (making angle  with hypotenuse) is called adjacent side or base.

The three sides of a right-angled triangle are connected to each other through six different ratios, called
trigonometric ratios or simply T-ratios :
perpendicular MP base OM
sin  = = cos  = =
hypotenuse OP hypotenuse OP
perpendicular MP base OM
tan  = = cot  = =
base OM perpendicular MP
hypotenuse OP hypotenuse OP
sec  = = cosec  = =
base OM perpendicular MP

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Units & Measurements

It can be easily proved that :

1 1 1
cosec  = sec  = cot  =
sin  cos  tan 
sin2 + cos2 = 1 1 + tan2 = sec2 1 + cot2 = cosec2

Illustration 32:
Given sin  = 3/5. Find all the other T-ratios, if  lies in the first quadrant.
Solution:
3
In  OMP, sin  = so MP = 3 and OP = 5
5

 OM = (5)2 − (3)2 = 25 − 9 = 16 = 4

OM 4 MP 3
Now, cos  = = tan  = =
OP 5 OM 4
OM 4 OP 5 OP 5
cot  = = sec  = = cosec  = =
MP 3 OM 4 MP 3

Table : The T-ratios of a few standard angles ranging from 0° to 180°

Angle () 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°

1 1 3 3 1 1
sin  0 1 2 2 0
2 2 2 2

3 1 1 1 1 3
cos  1 0 – – − –1
2 2 2 2 2 2


1 1
tan  0 1 3 (not – 3 –1 – 0
3 3
defined)

Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule*

90°

IInd quadrant Ist quadrant

Sin All
0°
180° 360°
Tan Cos
IIIrd quadrant IVth quadrant

270°

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Units & Measurements

In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.

In second quadrant, only sin and cosec are positive.
In third quadrant, only tan and cot are positive.
In fourth quadrant, only cos and sec are positive
* Remember as Add Sugar To Coffee or After School To College.

Trigonometrical Ratios of General Angles (Reduction Formulae)

(i) Trigonometric function of an angle (2n + ) where n=0, 1, 2, 3……. will be remain same.
sin(2n +) = sin cos(2n+) = cos tan(2n+)=tan

 n 
(ii) Trigonometric function of an angle  +   will remain same if n is even and sign of trigonometric function
 2 
will be according to value of that function in quadrant.
sin(–) = + sin cos(−) = –cos tan(−)= –tan
sin(+)= –sin cos(+)= –cos tan(+)= +tan
sin(−)= –sin cos(−)= +cos tan(−)= –tan

 n 
(iii) Trigonometric function of an angle  +   will be changed into co-function if n is odd and sign of
 2 
trigonometric function will be according to value of that function in quadrant.
     
sin  +   = + cos  cos  +   = − sin  tan  +   = − cot 
2  2  2 
     
sin  −   = + cos  cos  −   = + sin  tan  −   = + cot 
2  2  2 

(iv) Trigonometric function of an angle – (negative angles)

sin(–) = –sin cos(–) = +cos tan(–) = –tan

sin(90°+)=cos sin(180°– )= sin sin(–)=–sin sin(90°–)=cos

cos(90°+)=–sin cos(180°– )= –cos cos(–)=cos cos(90°–)=sin
tan(90°+)=–cot tan(180°– )= –tan tan(–)=–tan tan (90°–)=cot

sin(180°+ )= –sin sin(270°–)=–cos sin(270°+)=–cos sin(360°–)=–sin

cos(180°+ )= –cos cos(270°–)=–sin cos(270°+)=sin cos(360°–)=cos
tan(180°+ )= tan tan (270°–)=cot tan (270°+)=–cot tan(360°–)=–tan

Illustration 33:
Find the value of
(i) cos (–60°) (ii) tan 210° (iii) sin 300° (iv) cos 120°
Solution:
1 1
(i) cos (–60°) = cos 60° = (ii) tan 210° = tan (180° + 30°) = tan 30° =
2 3

3 1
(iii) sin 300° = sin (270° + 30°) = – cos 30° = – (iv) cos 120° = cos (180° – 60°) = – cos60° = –
2 2

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Units & Measurements

A few important trigonometric formulae

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B
sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A − tan B
tan ( A − B ) =
tan A + tan B 1 + tan A tan B
tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B

sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2 A = cos2 A – sin2 A

2tan A cos 2 A = 2 cos2 A – 1 = 1 – 2sin2 A
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A

A A
1 + cos A = 2 cos2 1 – cos A = 2sin2
2 2

Small Angle Approximation

If  is small (say < 5°) then sin  , cos  1 & tan   Here  must be in radians.

Errors
The difference between the measured value and the true value of a quantity is known as the error in measurement.
Error = (measured value – True value)
Errors may result from different sources and are usually classified as follows:

Systematic or Controllable errors

Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known. They can be either positive or negative. Due to the known
causes these errors can be minimised. Systematic errors can further be classified into three categories :
(i) Instrumental errors : These errors are due to imperfect design or erroneous manufacture or misuse of the
measuring instrument. These can be reduced by using more accurate instruments.
(ii) Environmental errors : These errors are due to the changes in external environmental conditions such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or magnetic and electrostatic fields.
(iii) Observational errors : These errors arise due to improper setting of the apparatus or carelessness in taking
observations.

Random errors:
These errors are due to unknown causes. Therefore, they occur irregularly and are variable in magnitude and sign.
Since the causes of these errors are not known precisely, they can not be eliminated completely. For example, when
the same person repeats the same observation in the same conditions, he may get different readings different times.
Random errors can be reduced by repeating the observations a large number of times and taking the arithmetic
mean of all the observations. This mean value would be very close to the most accurate reading.

Note:
1
If the number of observations is made n times then the random error reduces to   times.
n 
Example: If the random error in the arithmetic mean of 100 observations is 'x' then the random error in the
x
arithmetic mean of 500 observations will be .
5

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Units & Measurements

Representation of Errors
Errors can be expressed in the following ways:
Absolute Error (a) : The difference between the true value and the individual measured value of the quantity is
called the absolute error of the measurement.
Suppose a physical quantity is measured n times and the measured values are a1, a2, a3 ..........an. The arithmetic mean
(am) of these values is
a1 + a2 + a3 + ..............an 1 n
am = =  ai
n n i =1

If the true value of the quantity is not given then mean value (am) can be taken as the true value. Then the absolute
errors in the individual measured values are –
a1 = am – a1
a2 = am – a2


an = am – an

The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is defined as the final or mean absolute error (a)m or a of the value
of the physical quantity a.
| a1 | + | a2 | +...........+ | an | 1 n
(a)m = = | ai |
n n i =1

So, if the measured value of a quantity be 'a' and the error in measurement be a, then the true value (at) can be
written as
at = am ± (a)m

Relative or Fractional Error : It is defined as the ratio of the mean absolute error (( a)m or a ) to the true value or
the mean value (am or a ) of the quantity measured.
Mean absolute error (a)m a
Relative or fractional error = = or
Mean value am a

When the relative error is expressed in percentage, it is known as percentage error,

percentage error = relative error × 100
mean absolute error a
or percentage error =  100% =  100%
true value a

Propagation of Errors in Mathematical Operations

Rule I : The maximum absolute error in the sum or difference of the two quantities is equal to the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.
If X = A + B or X = A – B and if  A and  B represent the absolute errors in A and B respectively, then the
X
maximum absolute error in X is X = A + B and Maximum percentage error =  100
X
X
The result will be written as X ± X (in terms of absolute error) or X   100 % (in terms of percentage error)
X

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Units & Measurements

Rule II : The maximum fractional or relative error in the product or quotient of quantities is equal to the sum of the
fractional or relative errors in the individual quantities.

A X  A B 
If X = AB or X= then =  + 
B X  A B 

Rule III : The maximum fractional error in a quantity raised to a power (n) is n times the fractional error in the
quantity itself, i.e.

X  A 
If X = An then = n 
X  A 

X   A   B   C  
If X = ApBq Cr then = p  + q  +r 
X   A   B   C 

Ap B q X   A   B   C  
If X= then = p  + q +r 
Cr X   A   B   C  

● Systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and are produced due to
improper conditions or procedures that are consistent in action whereas random errors are accidental and
their magnitude and sign cannot be predicted from the knowledge of the measuring system and conditions
of measurement.

Systematic errors can therefore be minimised by improving experimental techniques, selecting better
instruments and improving personal skills whereas random errors can be minimised by repeating the
observations several times.

● Mean absolute error has the units and dimensions of the quantity itself whereas fractional or relative error is
unitless and dimensionless.

● Absolute errors may be positive in certain cases and negative in other cases.

Illustration 34:

Following observations were taken while measuring the length of a cylinder.

3.29 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.31 cm, 3.28 cm, 3.27 cm, 3.29 cm, 3.30 cm

Then find

(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder.

(b) Absolute error in each observation.

(c) Mean absolute error

(d) Relative error

(e) Percentage error

Express the result in terms of absolute error and percentage error.

Solution:

(a) Most accurate length of the cylinder will be the mean length ( )
3.29 + 3.28 + 3.29 + 3.31 + 3.28 + 3.27 + 3.29 + 3.30
= = 3.28875 cm or = 3.29 cm
8

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Units & Measurements

(b) Absolute error in the first reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm

Absolute error in the second reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm

Absolute error in the third reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm

Absolute error in the forth reading = 3.29 – 3.31 = –0.02 cm

Absolute error in the fifth reading = 3.29 – 3.28 = 0.01 cm

Absolute error in the sixth reading = 3.29 – 3.27 = 0.02 cm

Absolute error in the seventh reading = 3.29 – 3.29 = 0.00 cm

Absolute error in the last reading = 3.29 – 3.30 = –0.01 cm

0.00 + 0.01 + 0.00 + 0.02 + 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.00 + 0.01

(c) Mean absolute error =  = = 0.01 cm
8

 0.01
(d) Relative error in length = = = 0.0030395 = 0.003
3.29


(e) Percentage error = × 100 = 0.003 × 100 = 0.3%

So, length = 3.29 cm  0.01 cm (In terms of absolute error)

or = 3.29 cm  0.30% (In terms percentage error)

Illustration 35:

The initial and final temperatures of water as recorded by an observer are (40.6  0.2)°C and (78.3  0.3)°C. Calculate
the rise in temperature with proper error limits.
Solution:

Given 1 = (40.6  0.2)°C and 2 = (78.3  0.3)°C

Rise in temp.  = 2 – 1 = 78.3 – 40.6 = 37.7°C.

 =  (1 + 2) =  (0.2 + 0.3) =  0.5°C  Rise in temperature = (37.7 ± 0.5)°C

Illustration 36:

If a = 8 ± 0.08 and b = 6 ± 0.06, let x = a + b, y =a–b, z = ab.

The correct order of % error in x, y and z is

(A) x = y < z (B) x = y > z (C) x < z < y (D) x > z < y

Ans. (C)
Solution:

0.14 0.14
x = a + b = 14  0.14  % error =  100 = 1% ; y = a − b = 2  0.14  % error =  100 = 7%
14 2

0.96
z = ab = 48  0.96  % error =  100 = 2% . Therefore, order of % error is x < z < y
48

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Units & Measurements

Illustration 37:
The side of a cube is (2.00 ± 0.01) cm. The volume and surface area of cube are respectively
(A) (8.00 ± 0.12) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.24) cm2 (B) (8.00 ± 0.01) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.01) cm2
(C) (8.00 ± 0.04) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.06) cm2 (D) (8.00 ± 0.03) cm3, (24.0 ± 0.02) cm2
Ans. (A)
Solution:
V a  a  ( )( )  0.01 
Volume, V = a3 = 8cm3 . Also, = 3  V = 3V  = 3 8   = 0.12cm
3

V a  a   2.00 
Therefore, V = (8.00 ± 0.12)cm3
Surface Area, A = 6a2 =6 (2.00)2 = 24.0 cm2
A a  a  (  0.01 
Also, = 2  A = 2A   = 2 24.0)   = 0.24
A a  a   2.00 
Therefore, A = (24.0 ± 0.24) cm2

Illustration 38:
A thin copper wire of length L increases in length by 2% when heated from T1 to T2. If a copper cube having side
10 L is heated from T1 to T2 what will be the percentage change in
(i) Area of one face of the cube and.
(ii) Volume of the cube.
Solution:
(i) Area A = 10 L × 10 L = 100 L2  A  L2
A A
% change in area = × 100 = 2 × × 100 = 2 × 2% = 4%
A A
(ii) Volume V = 10 L × 10 L × 10 L = 1000 L3  V  L3
V L
% change in volume = × 100 = 3 = 3 × 2% = 6%
V L

Significant figures or Significant digits

Significant figures (SF) in a measurement are the figures or digits that are known with certainty plus one that is
uncertain (i.e. Last digit).
Significant figures in a measured value of a physical quantity tell the number of digits in which we have confidence.
Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is its accuracy and vice versa.

Rules to find out the number of significant figures

I Rule : All the non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF.
II Rule : All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF.
III Rule : All the zeros to the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF.
IV Rule : If the number is less than 1, zeros on the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non-
zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4 SF.

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Units & Measurements

V Rule : The trailing zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit) in a number with a decimal point are
significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF.

VI Rule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point may not be significant e.g. 010100 has 3 SF.

VII Rule : When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not affect the
number of S.F. For example, in x = 12.3 = 1.23 × 101 = 0.123 × 102

= 0.0123 × 103 = 123 × 10 – 1 each term has 3 SF only.

Rules for Arithmetical Operations with Significant Figures

I Rule : In addition, or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the
number of decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser number of decimal
places. e.g. 12.587 – 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (second term contain lesser i.e. one decimal place)

II Rule : In multiplication or division, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the smallest
number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 2.4 × 3.65 = 8.8

● To avoid confusion regarding the trailing zeros of the numbers without the decimal point the best way is to
report every measurement in scientific notation (in the power of 10). In this notation every number is
expressed in the form a × 10b, where a is the base number between 1 and 10 and b is any positive or negative
exponent of 10. The base number (a) is written in decimal form with the decimal after the first digit. While
counting the number of SF only base number is considered (Rule VII).

● The change in the unit of measurement of a quantity does not affect the number of SF. For example, in 2.308
cm = 23.08 mm = 0.02308 m = 2.308 × 104 m each term has 4 SF.

Illustration 39:

Write down the number of significant figures in the following.

(a) 165 (b) 2.05 (c) 34.000 m (d) 0.005

(e) 0.02340 N m–1 (f) 26900 (g) 26900 kg

Solution:

(a) 165 3SF (following rule I)

(b) 2.05 3 SF (following rules I & II)

(c) 34.000 m 5 SF (following rules I & V)

(d) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV)

(e) 0.02340 N m–1 4 SF (following rules I, IV & V)

(f) 26900 3 SF (see rule VI)

(g) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI)

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Units & Measurements

Rounding Off
To represent the result of any computation containing more than one uncertain digit, it is rounded off to appropriate
number of significant figures.

Rules for Rounding Off the Numbers :

I Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is more than 5, then the preceding digit is increased by one.
e.g. 6.87 6.9.

II Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left unchanged.
e.g. 3.94  3.9.

III Rule : If the digit to be rounded off is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if it is odd and is left
unchanged if it is even. e.g. 14.35  14.4 and 14.45  14.4.

Illustration 40:

The following values can be rounded off to four significant figures as follows :

(a) 36.879 36.88 (9 > 5  7 is increased by one i.e. I Rule)

(b) 1.0084 1.008 (4 < 5  8 is left unchanged i.e. II Rule)

(c) 11.115 11.12 (last 1 is odd it is increased by one i.e. III Rule)

(d) 11.1250 11.12 (2 is even it is left unchanged i.e. III Rule)

(e) 11.1251 11.13 (51 > 50  2 is increased by 1 i.e. I Rule)

Illustration 41:

The length, breadth and thickness of a metal sheet are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 cm respectively. Give the area and
volume of the sheet to correct number of significant figures.
Solution:

length () = 4.234 m breadth (b) = 1.005 m thickness (t) = 2.01 cm = 2.01 × 10–2 m

Therefore, area of the sheet = 2 (× b + b × t + t × )

= 2 (4.234 × 1.005 + 1.005 × 0.0201 + 0.0201 × 4.234) m2

= 2 (4.3604739) m2 = 8.7209478 m2

Since area can contain a maximum of 3 SF therefore, rounding off, we get: Area = 8.72 m2

Likewise, volume = × b × t = 4.234 × 1.005 × 0.0201 m3 = 0.0855289 m3

Since volume can contain 3 SF, therefore after rounding off, we get : Volume = 0.0855 m3.

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