Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Introduction
of Forestry

Summarized by:
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

We have summarized these notes by using standard source of agriculture so that

students can learn each and every subject in precise manner. These notes will help
you to cover all the syllabus of [Link]. Agriculture as well as allied stream. If
someone is preparing for state exam, UPSC or any entrance exam can use these
books/notes for their effective preparation.
Sources used to create these notes:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Sco-3, Sector-127, Kharar (Mohali)
Contact Number: 95-200-90-200
[Link]
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Join us on Social medial platform:

Telegram: Telegram: [Link]

YouTube: [Link]
Android App: [Link]
Website: [Link]
Facebook: [Link]
Instagram: [Link]
Contact Number: 98288-22277, 95200-90200
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Index

[Link]. Topic Name Page

No.
1. People and Forest 1
2. Rainfall/precipitation 5
3. The Tree 9
4. Basic mensuration in Forestry 16
5. Forests in Kosova 17
6. Legislation 21
7. Administration 23
8. Commercial products and benefits from the forests 25
9. Silviculture 26
11. Economy 27
12. Harvesting 27
13. Forest management Planning 35
14. Silviculture Terminology 38
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Lecture-1

1. People and forest

Forestry is the science, skills and activities related to the human utilization of the big plants
called trees and the land on which they are growing. This implies that there are two main
components in the art of Forestry, the human beings and the trees. The interaction between
people and forest is basic for survival for both parties. People have found that forests are
basic for the life and elementary socio-economic demands are covered there. On the other
hand, the forests have also an advantage of the people as it may imply carefulness,
protection, proliferation of new sorts. However, too often one has experienced that the
carefulness and protection of the forest have been neglected by people. The result of careless
utilization of the forests is destruction the human environment in smaller or bigger areas. In
order to ease the communication and reduce the misunderstanding between people, we very
often use the scientific names on trees and other plants. The name of a pine tree has a
number of local names such as pisha (Albanian), furu (Norway), beli bor (Serbia), tall
(Sweden), scots pine (Great Britain etc). The scientific name however is Pinus sylvestris.
This name is given to this plant according to an internationally accepted

botanical system. The name is not misunderstood or confused with any other plant or living
organism.

2. Organic production and decomposition

The photosynthesis – production of organic material
The process which goes on in all green plants, the photosynthesis, is by many scientists
regarded as the world’s most important chemical process. The green color of the plants i
caused by the chlorophyll. The chlorophyll enables the plants to utilize the solar energy for
building up the plant itself. The production of the bark and wood and fruits of a tree or the
grass, carrots potatoes and rice etc, also called organic material, depends upon the
photosynthesis where the solar energy is utilized for producing organic material. The plants
need the chlorophyll in their leaves in order to utilize the solar energy in this process. In
addition the plants need water and carbon dioxide for the production of organic material.
Carbon dioxide is a gas which also is being used in soft drinks and beer to make it sparkle
and taste refreshing.
The photosynthesis process can be written in a simple form like this

Introduction to Forestry 1
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Water + Carbon dioxide + solar energy Organic material + oxygen

The plants need water for their production of organic material (carbohydrates). If they do not
get water, they will die sooner or later. The chemical formula for water is H2O. The plants
need carbon dioxide for their production. They get this from the air. If they do not get
carbon dioxide, they will die sooner or later. The chemical formula for carbon dioxide is
CO2. The plants need light for their production of organic material. If not, they will die
sooner or later. An abbreviation for this energy can be E. When the plant is producing, it will
build up organic material, it will grow.
A simplified formula for organic material can be C6H12O6 This is also called glucose and is
one form of sugar. The plant also produces oxygen which is emitted into the air. The
chemical formula for oxygen is O2.
The process or the photosynthesis can be written in this shorter way, when we know the
abbreviations or chemical formulas.

H2O + CO2 + E C6H12O6 + O2

Respiration and decomposition

All animals and all people are unable to utilize the energy from the sun, like the plants do.
The animals have to get their energy by eating organic material made by plants and
decompose it in order to release the stored energy.
This process is in principle the reverse process of the photosynthesis and can be written like
this:
C6H12O6 + O2 E + H2O + CO2

The animals eat organic material and get oxygen from the air. The released energy is being
used for the functioning of the animal, such as movement and keeping the body temperature
correct etc. In the process, water H2O and carbon dioxide CO2 is produced. The same basic
process takes place when firewood is being burned. The organic material is the wood while
the oxygen comes from the air. Energy is released as a fire with a quite high temperature. In
this process water H2O and carbon dioxide CO2 is produced and released to the air.

Introduction to Forestry 2
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

3. Factors for growth

The factors for growth imply all no-living environmental factors which have implications on
the growth for plants and forests. These factors for growth are commonly subdivided in two
groups, climatic factors, and edaphic factors:

3.1 Climatic factors

Water is moving in an eternal cycle, powered by the sun and the gravitation. The water
evaporates from the soil, from the ocean and lakes and goes to the air where the clouds are
created by tiny, small drops of water. When the temperature changes to a lower level, the
tiny drops of water in the clouds are becoming fewer and bigger and they fall as rain. If the
temperature is below 0o C it will fall as snow or hail. Rain and snowfall is very often also
called precipitation. The rain falls on the ground and penetrates the soil and also runs off in
streams and rivers until it eventually reaches the lakes and the ocean. The sun will in turn
makeit evaporate again and the hydrologic cycle continues.

The water, which is utilized by the trees and plants, comes from the rain or snow and in the
high mountains also from fog. To become available, the water must in most cases infiltrate
the ground so it can be reached by the roots. The water balance of the hydrologic cycle can
be illustrated like this

Introduction to Forestry 3
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Rainfall Evaporation from the ground

Surface and the vegetation
Surface run off or
stream flow Uptake of water
from the roots

Water available for the roots

In a simplified way we can state this equation:

Introduction to Forestry 4
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Lecture-2
Rainfall / precipitation
- (minus) evaporation from the ground and the vegetation
- (minus) surface run off and stream flow
=
water uptake available for the roots
The different species of trees have different need for water. Some tropical trees like Acacia
species can manage with extremely little water. Many Pinus spp , the Juniperus communis
and some Quercus spp species are also very tolerant to dry conditions. Other trees like
Betula spp. Alnus spp. and Populus spp need more water for their survival and production.
The air always contains sufficient amounts (0.038%) of carbon dioxide (CO2) and this
factor cannot be changed easily although the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
has increased during the last decades. Wind is however an important factor for growth. The
winds will always affect the standing trees and sometimes limit their growth. Strong winds
can in some cases cause the whole tree to turn over. Some species are very strong and
resistant to storm, such as some Pinus spp. Betula spp and Juniperus communis. Other
species are more vulnerable and are more easily windblown such as picea abies, and Abies
alba. The various species have different abilities to resist strong wind and storms.
Light is the driving force for any green plant because the light is their only source of
energy. The radiation of light comes directly from the sun or indirectly reflected from the
sky, from clouds, from water surfaces and also neighboring plants. The sunlight is also
called electromagnetic waves. These waves have different wavelengths. The wavelength is
the distance from one top of a wave to the next one. This span of different wavelengths in
the electromagnetic radiation is called the spectrum. When the wavelength is within the
visible spectrum it is known as "visible light." The range of wavelengths human eye can
perceive is approximately from 380 nanometers (nm) to 740 nm,

Introduction to Forestry 5
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

The wavelength

The colors of the visible light spectrum

Color wavelength interval
red ~ 625–740 nm
orange ~ 590–625 nm
yellow ~ 565–590 nm
green ~ 500–565 nm
cyan ~ 485–500 nm

blue ~ 440–485 nm

violet ~ 380–440 nm

The unit nm is called nanometre and is the distance of one thousand millionth part of a
millimetre or 1/1000 000 000 of a millimetre. This is a quite short distance. See the below
table:

Multiple Name Symbol

100 Metre m

10−1 Decimetre dm

10−2 Centimetre cm

Introduction to Forestry 6
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

10−3 Millimetre mm

10−6 Micrometer µm

10−9 Nanometer nm

The visible light of different wavelengths are detected by the human eye and then
interpreted by the brain as colors, ranging from red at the longest wavelengths of about 740
nm to violet at the shortest wavelengths of about 380 nm. The intermediate wavelengths are
seen as orange, yellow, green, and blue. The colors are those we can see in the rainbow.

UV 380 nm 740 nm IR

The wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately outside the range that the
human eye is able to perceive, are called ultraviolet (UV) at the short wavelength (high
frequency) end of the spectrum and infrared (IR) at the long wavelength (low frequency)
end. Some animals, such as bees, can see UV radiation while others, such as pit viper
snakes, can see infrared light. Some cameras can also “see” and record infrared light and
ultraviolet. The various wavelengths carry different energy. The shorter wavelength, blue
and violet have the most energy, while the longer wavelength from green and onwards to red
has less energy. The plants therefore utilize the blue and violet colors / wavelengths because
that gives them the most energy. The green color is therefore reflected from the chlorophyll
in the leaves, the plant does not need this color. That is the reason why we see the plants as
green. The yellow and red wavelengths are also reflected but the green is dominating, and
therefore we see the green leaves, even if it is a mixture of colors.

The temperature is measured in degrees Celsius often written as oC. 0oC is the freezing
point of water and 100oC is the temperature when the water is boiling at sea level. Water is
boiling at lower temperatures in high mountains because of the lower air pressure in the

Introduction to Forestry 7
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

atmosphere. The lowest possible temperature is – 274 oC, but there is no upper limit for
temperature. For the plants and the forest trees, the temperature during the growing season in
the summer is the most important. It seems that the optimum or the best temperature for the
forest trees is in the range of 5 – 30o C. When the temperature is low the growth slows down
and the trees normally do not grow when the temperature reaches 0 oC. The trees in Europe
have normally no problems in surviving frost, but they do not grow, they are just taking a
rest, waiting for the next summer. If the temperature rises too high, it may cause damage to
the cells and leaves, and they will eventually die. The different trees species have different
tolerance for high and low temperature, and they therefore also have different optimum
(best) temperature for growth.
3.2 Edaphic factors.
The bedrock contains several minerals which are nutrients to the plants. When the rocks
and stones slowly are eroded into small particles, the minerals become available to the roots
of the plants. The plant and trees need these nutrient minerals as building material in the
plant itself and for making flowers and fruits. Bedrock of granite and gneiss are hard and
poor rocks and contain small amounts of minerals. The soil made from the erosion of this
kind of rocks therefore is poor and the plants will grow very slowly. Some sediments and
also limestone contain large amounts of calcium and other minerals which are important for
the plants. The soil from the erosion of this kind of rocks therefore is rich and the plants will
grow fast. Some are adapted well to the poor soils and some are adapted to the richer soils.
Fagus spp normally needs rich soils while Pinus spp. and Juniperus communis normally can
grow well on poor soils
The soil is made from the eroded bedrocks. Therefore, the soil reflects the mineral content
of the original bedrock. This sort of soil is called inorganic soil as it contains no organic
components. The organic components are developed gradually from rotting leaves, roots
and other parts from plants An example of a soil profile is shown below:

The plants need a mixture of different minerals for their growth, but some of them are
needed in small quantities only. These are called microelements and are listed below. Some
minerals are needed in larger quantities and are called macro elements

Macro elements Microelements

Introduction to Forestry 8
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Carbon C Iron F
Nitrogen N Copper Cu
Phosphorus P Manganese Mn
Sulphur S Boron B
Potassium K Molybdenum Mo
Magnesium M Chlorine Cl
Calcium Ca

Except for nitrogen N and carbon C, the macro elements normally come from the bedrock. If
the soil is poor, various macro- and micro elements can also be supplied by fertilizers. In
agriculture this is quite common to apply fertilizer containing N, P and K.

If the plants do not get the necessary nutrients, they will suffer and grow slower and they
very often have visible symptoms of lack of one or more minerals.
Humus is organic soil and originates from decomposed parts of plants and dead animals.
The plants and animals are decomposed by fungi, by bacteria and by other microorganisms.
A thick layer of humus mixed with rich inorganic soil is a good basis for plant production. A
thin or missing layer of humus on the topsoil is, on the other hand, normally a poor site for
plants to grow. Some plants have adapted to living on poor sites and other are adapted to the
richer soil. The wood production in a forest is much determined by the quality of the soil
and humus. In most countries the foresters have made systems for classification of the
different types of soil. This classification is directly linked to the potential production of
wood.

4. The tree

A tree is a woody plant that usually is more than 3 meters tall and has one main stem.
Although trees have different shapes and sizes, all have the same basic parts. Each of these
parts, from the highest leaves in the crown to the tiny rot hairs buried in the soil, play an
important role in the trees function and survival.

Introduction to Forestry 9
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

4.1 The stem (trunk)

It consists of heartwood, which is the dead wood of the stem, of sapwood which is the living
wood (xylem), the cambium and the bark.

The heartwood is the older part of the wood and consists of dead cells. Its function is only
to strengthen the stem. The cells in the heartwood are very often filled with resin and oil,
which makes it very rot resistant. This resin has a darker brown and sometimes black color
and makes the wood very attractive for various purposes such as furniture and other
carpentry. The heartwood of Juniperus communis is extremely rot resistant.
The sapwood (xylem) provides transport fort the tree sap (= water plus nitrogen and
minerals) which is carried up from the root to the leaves / needles.

The cambium is a layer of cells inside the inner bark. It is found in between the sapwood

Introduction to Forestry 10
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

and the bark. The cambium produces both the xylem (sapwood) cells and the phloem (=
inner bark) cells. The cambium layer is responsible for increases in tree diameter, by
creating annual rings, and responds to injury by producing callus tissue Each year a tree
essentially grows a new "coat of wood" over the older wood. This is where the growth in
diameter occurs and where the annual rings in the wood and the bark is formed. The annual
rings found in tree stems are the result of variations in growth rate and in the type of wood
produced early and late in the growing season. The annual rings are also reflecting the actual
weather conditions every year; with a favorable summer, the rings will be wider. When
counting the rings we can determine the age of a tree. Many trees are hundreds of years old,
and a few live thousands of years. Thus, the annual rings provide valuable information on
climate and conditions for growth.

The bark layer is made up by dead bark (cortex) cells and protects the tree from insects and
diseases, extreme heat and cold and from injuries.
In the inner bark (phloem) layer, the sugar which is produced in the leaves is carried down
to the branches and stem and root, where it is converted to starch which in turn can be used
by the tree for its growth in all parts.

Introduction to Forestry 11
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

4.2 The root

The root of the tree supports the stem and crown, and it also anchors the tree to the soil
where it grows. The root also serves as storage for the organic material produced by the
leaves. The root also absorbs water and nutrients from the soil. Trees' root systems are made
up of large, permanent roots (which mainly provide anchorage and transport), and many
small, temporary feeder roots and root hairs. It is these small parts of the root system that
are the primary water and nutrient absorbers. Roots of most species of trees are invaded by
soil fungi to form root-fungus structures called mycorrhizae. The mycorrhizal association
is beneficial to both the tree and the fungus. The tree supplies carbohydrates/organic
material and other growth requirements to the fungus, and the fungus increases water and
mineral uptake (particularly phosphorus P) of the host tree by increasing the total absorptive
area of the root system.

4.3 Tree crown

The crown consists of all the leaves or needles, flowers and fruits and all smaller or bigger
branches. One important function of the crown is to carry the leaves in such a way that they
are efficient receivers of the energy from the sunlight.
The flowers and fruits are almost always found in the crown. The final form of a mature tree
is determined by the dominant growth in the crown of some buds and shoots at the expense
of others, a phenomenon known as apical dominance.

Conifer trees are with few exceptions (Larix spp.) evergreen and they have needle shaped
leaves. In most conifers the
trunk or main stem grows more each year than the other branches, and the branches attached

Introduction to Forestry 12
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

to the stem grow more than smaller branches. This results in a very orderly growth habit that
forms a conical tree growth and is very typical on conifer trees as Pinus spp and Abies spp.

Deciduous trees have green flat leaves which are falling off in
the autumn.
Most deciduous trees do not show strong apical dominance and
therefore typically exhibit less orderly growth. Instead, many
shoots grow at the same rate, many
branches are developed, and it sometimes becomes difficult to
identify the main stem. These
species usually have large spreading crowns.
4.4 Regeneration
As all plants, the trees are always producing male and female flowers. Very often the two
sexes of flowers grow on the same tree. After being fertilized by the pollen the female
flower produces a fruit with seeds, bigger or smaller. Very often the seed has

wings, as on Pinus spp and Picea abies, Betula spp, acer spp and others. Sometimes the
seed is bigger, like coconuts, walnuts, hazelnuts, oaknuts and others. The seeds are
produced in great numbers to secure that at least some of them will survive and become a
new tree. The regeneration of trees from seed in this way is called natural regeneration and
is by far the most common in nature.

This small oak plant is germinating from a seed.

Introduction to Forestry 13
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

10 years old natural regeneration of Pinus peuce from

seed after clearfelling of a small area of older trees. The high stumps protect against sliding
snow
The trees can also have vegetative regeneration. The new shoots or new small trees are
growing up from the roots of a big tree. In fact it is considered to be the same plant as the
mother tree. Such regeneration is common for Populus spp and Salix spp.
In Kosova new shoots are commonly growing from the stump when the original tree is cut.
These small shoots are called coppices and the regeneration is called coppice
regeneration. Coppice regeneration is quite common for the oaks (Quercus spp) The oak
however also produces a great number of big seeds which fall on the ground.

These small oak stems are coppices after the main tree has been cut.

Introduction to Forestry 14
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Tree planting This practice is designed to establish trees where the existing vegetation is
inadequate and on open lands where conversion to forest is desirable and feasible.
When there is a general abundance of trees and a richness of native species and where the
moisture and fertility of soils are good, the trees naturally regenerate well, and tree planting
is not necessary. To produce the forest plants, the seed are collected from mature trees of
good quality and sown in a forest nursery. After 2 – 4 years the plant is big enough to be
planted in the forest and to survive in natural conditions. This method of securing the forest
regeneration after felling of the big trees is relatively costly, but it gives very good quality
forest when the production of plants, the planting work in the forest and the subsequent
silvi-culture activities are done professionally.

Introduction to Forestry 15
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Lecture-3

5. Basic mensuration in forestry

When practicing in the professional forestry there is always a need for measurements for
management and other purposes. The measurements give information on the size of a piece
of forest land; the volume of a single tree; the total volume in the whole forest etc.

5.1 Units of measurement

To avoid misunderstandings, it is necessary to use the same units of measurement of
distance, area, volume etc. The list below gives some basic units of measurement,
commonly used in forestry
Distance
1 m (meter) = 100 cm
1m = 10 dm
1 dm = 10 cm
1cm = 10 mm
1m = 1000 mm
1 km = 1000 m
Area
1 dm2 = 100 cm2
1 m2 = 100 dm2
1 ar = 100 m2
1 decar = 1000 m2
1 hectare = 10 decar
1 decar = 0,1 hectare
1 km2 = 100 hectare
1 km2 = 1000 decar
Volume
1 m3 = 1000 dm3
1 dm3 = 1000cm3
1dm3 = 1 litre

Introduction to Forestry 16
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

6. Forests in Kosova

A national forestry inventory was finished in Kosova in 2003. A forest inventory is a

method to find the area of forests, the total volume in m3 of the different tree species, the
annual increment of the different tree species in m3/year, category of ownership,
classification of the terrain and a number of other details. Because it is impossible and
expensive to measure all trees in a big forest, the forest inventory always makes use of
sampling. This implies a system of small sample plots, systematically distributed over the
whole forest. This distribution of sample plots is very often made by means of a regular grid,
covering the whole forest area in question. Each sample plot has a given area, which can be
100 m2 or 200m2 or 500m2 or other size, depending upon the forest type and the total forest
area. The measurements are made on these sample plots only, and we assume that the forest
on these plots is similar to the rest of the forest outside these sample plots. Planning and
implementation of forest inventories for big areas requires special skills and experience,
while reading and understanding the final results from an inventory should require basic
forest knowledge only.

Introduction to Forestry 17
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

The main findings and conclusions in the forest inventory project in Kosova are:

Area distribution in Kosova

hectares %
Public forest land 278 880
Private forest land 185 920
Sum forest land 464 800 42,4
Other land 629 400 57,5
Total area 1,094,200 100

Broadleaved forests, cover about 93 % of the total forest area. The dominating broadleaved
species are Quercus spp and Fagus spp. Coniferous forests, covering 7% of the total forest
area are dominated by Abies alba, Picea abies and Pinus spp.

The forest inventory has calculated the total volume of the stems of the trees in the forest. A
small tree may have a volume of 0,01 – 0,02 m3 (= 10 – 20 dm3 ) while a big Fagus sylvatica
or Abies alba may be 1,5 m3 or more.
Standing volume Kosova forests in million m3

millionm3 %

Public forest land 33.5 63

Private forest land 19.5 37
Sum volume 53.0 100

The forest inventory has measured the annual increment on a big number of different trees
on the sample plot. These measurements have been used to calculate the total increment in
the whole forest. Based on the information of the total standing volume and the increment,
the total allowable harvesting has also been calculated. The allowable cut is the amount of
wood which could be harvested every year, without cutting more than the forest can
produce. In this forest inventory it is calculated that 77% of the total annual increment can

Introduction to Forestry 18
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

be harvested every year. The allowable cut therefore is

100% – 77 %= 23% less than what the forest is producing.

Increment and allowable harvesting in thousand m3

Thousandm3 %

Allowable harvest in high forest 700 60

Allowable harvest in low forest 200 17
Sum annual allowable harvesting 900 77
Total annual increment
1 165 100

Picea abies Fagus sylvatica

From the forest inventory there has been calculated the standing volume for the various

Introduction to Forestry 19
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

important tree species, because this is also of importance for the management of the forest
resources in Kosova. The table below gives the results of one such calculation.

Standing volume by tree species, in 1000 m3 and in %

Standing Standing volume

Tree species volume 1000 m3 in %
Quercus cerris 5,176 9,8
Quercus petraea 4,277 8,1
Other Quercus spp. 129 0,2
Fagus spp. 15,963 30,2
Other broadleaves 3,706 7,0
Undefined broadleaves 5,983 11,3
Abies alba 1,577 3,0
Picea abies 1,402 2,7
Pinus ssp. 2,019 3,8
Other conifers 224 0,4
Conifers < 7cm 321 0,6
Broadleaves <7cm 12,118 22,9
Total 52,895 100,0

Lecture-4

Introduction to Forestry 20
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Harvesting licence
A licence is required from Kosova Forest Agency (KFA) before harvesting in the forest can
take place. The licence for harvesting smaller quantities of wood is given by the regional
office of KFA. Bigger commercial harvesting operations are subject to legal tender from the
professional forest entrepreneurs. The winner of a tender gets a licence to harvest, transport
and sell a given quantity (m3) of wood after all the trees to be cut have been marked by the
KFA foresters. However, a lot of illegal harvesting is taking place both of firewood from
Quercus spp. and Fagus spp. as well as very valuable technical wood from conifers. The
result is local over harvesting and partly serious damage to the trees and the forest. The
illegal harvesting is also an indication of mismanagement and lack of control of the
utilization of the natural forest resources.

7. Legislation
Kosovo legislation of the forestry field is quite progressive, based on international
conventions and EU and includes the following principals:
• Precautionary principals.
• Conservation of biological diversity.
• Principal of the intergeneration equity.
• Sustainable ecological development.
The current legislation is made up of:
• Law No. 2003/3, on Kosovo Forests
• Law No. 2004/29, For the Amendments and Completion of Law No. 2003/3 for Kosovo
Forests.
• Administrative Instruction No. 07/2003 for the establishment, responsibilities, functions and
organization of Kosovo Forests Agency:
• Administrative Instruction MA – No. 02/2005 for responsibilities and obligations of forests
guards.
• Administrative Instruction MA – No. 06/2005 for the Registration, License of Producers of
the Forests Nurseries Material and Decorative Wood Plants Nurseries.

• Administrative Instruction MA – No. 12/2005 for the Determination of Tax – Prices for the
Utilization of Forests Products, Non-Forests Products and for the Professional Technical
Services.

Introduction to Forestry 21
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

• Administrative Instruction MA – No. 23/2005 for the Given of Professional License.

• Administrative Instruction MA – No. 29/2005 Selection, Stumping, Marking of Woods
Assortments, Wood freight Permit and Forests Order.
• Administrative Instruction MA – No. 23/2005 for the Selling of Forests Trunks and Wood
Assortments.
• Administrative Instruction MA – NO. 03/2006 for the Authorization and Competences of
Forests Inspection and Procedures of the Issuance of Decisions.
• Administrative Instruction MA – NO. 12/2006 For the Content and Way of Drawing up of
the Forests Management Plans in Kosovo.

As well as part of proposals and strategies of the legislation for 2007, is planned to do the
amendment of Kosovo Forests Law 2003/3 in some articles, and draw up of other
instructions that come out form this law.

7.1 The forest law

The basis for all forestry activities in any country is the forest law, Law No. 2003/3,. The
forest law gives general guidelines on how the forests should be managed. The forest law
also specifies the public authorities who approve and control the law enforcement. Based on
the forest law, there are a number of directives stating more technical details in forest
operations and forest management.
The forest law states that the forests in Kosova are national resources to the benefit of
present and future generations. The law is also guided by the principles of precautionary,
conservation of biological diversity and ecologically sustainable development. The law
strives to balance economic, social and environmental aspects. The law also addresses a
number of other important issues:

➢ Definition of the Government tools for overseeing and developing forestry in Kosova.
This includes, among other things, the creation of a Forest Fund to support restoration
of Kosova’s forest, creation of a Forestry Board to observe and investigate the
management and administration of forestry and defining the responsibilities of Kosova
Forest Agency.
➢ The Forest Fund is regulated by the Forest Law and approved in March 2003
➢ Allowing the public free access to and movement on the forestlands including allowing

Introduction to Forestry 22
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

non-commercial gathering of mushrooms, berries, fruits, nuts and herbs.

➢ All public forestlands should be covered by a 10-year plan describing all activities
during the duration of the plan. Planning requirements are also prescribed for private
holdings larger than 3 hectares.
➢ Before any felling can commence on any forestlands, a felling permit is required, and all
trees have to be lawfully marked. The law also states that it is unlawful to transport
wood without having a valid transport permit.
➢ The law puts high attention to law enforcement. Implementation of clear procedures for
handling offences, ordering of fines, responsibilities and rights of forest officials, and
setting of professional standards may improve the management and status of Kosovas
forest. It will also be important to have close communication and cooperation with the
community forestry.
➢ Transparency, disclosure of government documents, and economic interests. These
Plans and other information will be made available to the public and, thus, reducing
risks of corruption and implementation of actions contradictory to the public interest.”
8. Administration
The current structure is being revised, and up the end of this year (2006) or possibly at the
beginning of the next year there will be some changes, not only in the level of sectors but
also to the individuals as a part of MAFRD Departments.

Fores Kosovo

Introduction to Forestry 23
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

try Forest
Instit Agency
ute

Kosovo Veterinary and

Food Agency

Acting CEO - Qaush Kabashi

Deputy Minister
MINISTER
Tome Hajdaraj
2 political advisors 5 political advisors

Legal Office and Public

Relations Legal Office
Director - Adnan Basha Acting CEO – Muzafer Luma Director – Shefki Zeqiri

Acting Permanent Auditing Unit Information and

Public Relations
Secretary Chief - Muharrem Meholli
Qazim Kukalaj Chief-Jusuf Salihu
Policy Office
Acting Chief – Hysni Nura

Procurement
Department
Director-Fatmir Thaçi

EU Integration and
international collab. Off.
Acting Chief - Faton Osmani

Agricultural Statistics Department of Rural Kosovo Institute of Department of Plant Department of Animal Department of Forestry Central Administrative
Office Development and Advisory Agriculture (KIA) Production & Protection Production Services Department
Chief-Hakile Xhaferi Services

Seeds and
Technical and Phytosanitary
Animal Breeding, Budget and Finance
Thematic Support of Chief - Adem Arifaj Production and
Rural Development Chief - Mirjeta Behluli
Marketing Control &Inspection
Chief – Afrim Frrokaj Chief - Arsim Memaj
Crops Monitoring Personnel and
Chief – Hasan Ukaj
and Horticulture Human Resources
Coordination of Animal Feed and Chief – Ejup Kamberaj
Advisory Services Chief - Habil Zeqiri Pasture Forests & Forest
Management resources Central Archive
Chief – Shaban Dreshaj
Chief - Lulzim Shamolli
Chief -Mentor Sopjani Chief – Fatmire Tahiri
Irrigation and
Drainage Poultry, Fisheries, Organization &
Apiaries Managing Policy Logistics
Chief – Robert Marjakaj
Hunting & eco-
Chief - Agim Nuha Chief - Gani Koliqi
turism
Chief – Bajram Batusha
Artificial
Insemination Centre Minister's Cabinet
Trainings &
Civil Servants
Chief - KCB
Advisors

Chief – Deme Loxhaj

The diagram shows that there are various departments and other sections related to forestry
within the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development.
As a part of Kosovo Government, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Rural Development
is responsible for issues related to the forestry, wildlife and hunting, as well as fishing and
eco-tourism
MAFRD have two structures dealing specially with forestry issues:
1. Department of forestry (DoF);
2. Kosovo Forests Agency (KFA);
Main responsibilities
Department of Forestry (DoF), is a responsible for the drawing up and development of the
forests policy, draft of the laws and activities regulating forest management as a sector for
forests policy and development and also the sector for management policy with wild life and
ecotourism, the development of education system, trainings and advisory service in forestry

Introduction to Forestry 24
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

sector, the sector of inspection and field control etc.

Kosovo Forests Agency (KFA) is responsible for issues related to the regulation of forests,
private forests lands, management and administration of forests and public forests lands,
including the legal licenses for commercial harvesting, as well as forest sin Kosovo National
Parks.
The Main Challenges in Forestry Field are as following:

• Different interpretation of forestry and forestry land as a property and ownership.

• Not sufficiently professional staff at the country level
• Continued pressure in the damage of forests around at 40% of public forests lands and
29% of private forest lands, mainly because the forests may be the only resource of
income for a number of families.
• Illegal hunting and illegal harvesting of wood etc.
• Limited possibilities for capital investments.
• Usurpations of forests and forest lands.
9. Commercial products and benefits from the forests

9.1 Products
There are several commercial (= which can be sold for money) products from the forest.
The most wellknown product is logs of the various trees. In Kosova the most valuable logs
are from Abies alba, Picea abies, Fagus sylvatica and Quercus spp.
The logs can be processed in sawmills to sawn wood used in house building, carpentry and a
number of other products.

Firewood is another very important commercial product in Kosova. Firewood is mainly

produced from Quercus spp and Fagus spp and it is sold to private households,
municipalities and local industry.

Introduction to Forestry 25
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Firewood of Quercus spp. ready for sale

Other non-wood commercial products from the Kosova forests are mushrooms, wild berries,
honey, resin, edible nuts and flowers.

9.2 Benefits
Forest environment is not only supplying commercial products. There are numerous other
benefits for humans. The benefits may vary from one place to another and from one country
to another. A few of these benefits are mentioned below. The forest affects the local climate
and wind, and it also gives shelter and shade. The forest is important for protection against
soil erosion on hillsides and along the rivers.
The vegetation in the forests helps to maintain and refill the ground water reservoirs. Rivers
and streams are coming from forested areas and is the basis for fishing.
The biodiversity in the different types of forests is important for the ecosystems. The forests
provide important recreational areas for people. The growing and living trees need large
amounts of carbon dioxide CO2 and consequently they produce large amounts of oxygen O2
The plants and trees are necessary for our survival. As we breathe in, our bodies take in
oxygen O2 and when we breathe out, we release carbon dioxide CO2 Trees and other plants
do the opposite, as they are absorbing CO2 and release O2 Both O2 and CO2 are gases vital
for the life on earth. The plants cannot survive without the carbon dioxide CO2 and the
human beings, birdsand animals cannot survive without the oxygen O2
10. Silviculture
Silviculture is the subject dealing with all the biological aspects of growing trees and forests

Introduction to Forestry 26
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

for a particular purpose. The purpose can be to produce logs and wood for the industry,
producing firewood or any other commercial product or benefits. Very often the purpose of
human intervention in the forests is complex and not aiming at one objective alone. There
should be a clear objective with any silviculture work or silviculture intervention in the
forest. Such objectives are found in the forest management plans.
The regeneration is the first step of silviculture activity. To secure the regeneration is to
make sure that the young forest plants have the necessary conditions for growth and become
the next generation of forest.

Natural regeneration of Picea abies

As the young trees in a forest are growing, there are normally so many small trees that they
all cannot survive. There are not enough nutrients, light and water for the survival of all.
When the forest reaches this stage it will be appropriate to do spacing or thinning. The trees
that are judged to become a part of the future forest are left, while the other trees are cut.
This is done according to certain guidelines for each species. If the stems of the cut trees
have a suitable size, they can be sold on a commercial marked and thereby cover some of
the costs of the thinning operation. A thinning operation takes place sometimes 2 – 4 times
during the life of given forest area, before the final harvesting of the produced trees. The
number of thinning operations depends on the life cycle of the trees, on the site quality and
on what is the desired quality of the final product. Since most thinning operations are quite
costly compared to the final harvesting, it is important to be aware of the economic costs
and benefits. The forest management plans are normally made with these economic factors in
mind.
When doing silviculture interventions, the forester must have good knowledge to th the
forest management plan, about forest biology and forest ecology as well as forest harvesting

Introduction to Forestry 27
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

and economy and not at least, about how to communicate with people.
The final harvesting can be made as a clear felling on a limited area. This is quite common
and convenient for conifer forests. But the harvesting of the mature trees sometimes is in
some occasions done as a felling of the bigger trees in two or three operations with some
few years of interval. This may help the natural regeneration to establish itself. However,
more technical operations cause damage to the remaining trees and to the forest ground and
it is more costly.
11. Economy
When utilizing the forest resources, the cost of the production should not higher than the
price for the final product. Still, we have to manage the forests in a sustainable way, which
means that the forest shall not be destroyed or reduced by our activities. A sustainable forest
management means to secure the forests and the production for the future generations.
Therefore, the cost of silviculture, such as necessary planting, thinning, pest control and
other activities, is a part of the total production price.

12. Harvesting
Harvesting includes all the activities linked to the felling of trees, transport and the
commercial sale of wood.
The harvesting of the commercial wood is important for the country as the industry and
other customers are supplied with needed raw material and products. The harvesting is also
important because it provides employment for a number of forest workers, for
forest entrepreneurs and the companies who deliver the necessary supplies and service to the
activities involved.
The harvesting is one element in the forestry supply chain. Such a supply chain is an
important part of the logistics in forestry. When this supply chain is managed efficiently, the
economic benefits will be the best for everyone involved, including the customers.

12.1 Supply chain management (SCM)

This is the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the operations of the supply
chain with the purpose to satisfy customer requirements as efficiently as possible. SCM
spans all movements and storage of raw materials, the industrial process, and finished goods
from point-of-origin to point-of-consumption. The supply chain management also includes
the equally important opposite flow of information.

Introduction to Forestry 28
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

One detail of the SCM is the actual felling of trees. This is a risky and difficult part of the
harvesting, and it is important that the forest workers are well trained, that they have good
equipment and that they use the necessary safety equipment as can be seen on the photo
below.

Full safety equipment with helmet, ear protection, eye protection, jacket with signal colors,
trousers with built-in protective fabric of synthetic fiber and protective boots with good grip
soles

The felling work should follow a given procedure in order to avoid accidents and to reduce
problems and to secure efficient progress in the work

Introduction to Forestry 29
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

The first cuts of have been completed. The worker know exactly where the tree will fall.
To control the direction in which the tree is falling when cut, is normally not a problem, not
even for big trees of Picea abies or Abies alba The drawings below however are related to
the felling of relatively small trees.

Principles of felling a tree

Introduction to Forestry 30
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Cross-section of the stump.

The tree will fall in the direction of
the arrow

Leave this wood uncut

Principle of cutting when you want the tree to fall in the direction of the arrow

The three will fall in the direction of

the arrow

Leave this wood uncut

How to do the cutting if you want the tree to fall more to the right. Leaving more wood on
the right side will force it to fall in that direction

The terrain transport of logs is sometimes difficult because of the terrain and it is also
costly. The terrain transport requires good planning as do the whole harvesting operation. It
is of importance that the skidding can be executed in such a way that the remaining trees are
not damaged by the logs, by the tractor wheels or by wires. Because of the high risk of such
damage, it advisable in steep terrain to do the final harvesting as limited clear fellings and
not as thinnings. Thinning in mature forest with big trees will inevitably lead to damage to
the remaining forest trees and to increased operation costs.

The equipment used for the terrain transport of logs in a harvesting operation can be horses,
farm tractors with 2- or 4-wheel drive, skidders, forwarders or cable systems. Very much of

Introduction to Forestry 31
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

the forests in the mountains in Kosova is very suitable for the use of cable systems.
Sometimes also manual hauling downhill is being used, but this slow method, although it is
relatively cheap, will open the ground for erosion.

A Timberjack skidder is used for the terrain transport of logs.

Logset forwarder with 8-wheel drive for terrain transport

Introduction to Forestry 32
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

A skyline system mounted on a 6-wheel drive truck would be very suitable for terrain transport
when logging in steep terrain in Kosova
The poor quality of the forest roads is a serious problem for the commercial harvesting in
Kosova. These poor roads are a reason for damage to the vehicles, reduced payloads and
unnecessary high costs for transport. The bad quality of the forest roads is also an
environmental problem as they very often are the reason for soil erosion.

Introduction to Forestry 33
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Forest road maintenance is an important part of the forest supply chain.

Here the rubber grader is being pulled by a skidder.

Loading the truck prior to the road transport.

The logs are measured before loading.
The most basic elements in the supply chain in forestry are illustrated below in a simplified
way. The illustration shows that the various human activities for utilizing the forest
resources are closely connected to each other. It is not sufficient to considering only one of
the activities in this chain. Any chain, e.g., the supply chain in forestry, is not stronger than
the weakest link.

The supply chain it Forestry

Forest management planning

Silviculture, regeneration and thinning

Forest operational planning

Road building and road maintenance

Payments
Logs and
Felling of trees information

Terrain transport of logs by skidders, tractors,

forwarders, cableways, horses or manual
Introduction to Forestry 34
 Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Volume measurement of logs

Loading logs on a forest truck

Road transport

Unloading on the customers site

Payments according to a contract

The professional forester must know the whole supply chain, although it is not for one
person to have detailed knowledge on all details. The necessary knowledge includes both
forestry and also knowledge about communication between people. Successful forest
management depends on the people, their ability to cooperate, to work in team and to
communicate and organize the work within a sound and transparent economic system for
the best for the whole society. The harvesting of wood consists of a number of technical,
logistic and economical details. It is the harvesting operation which provides the economic
benefits from the long-term investments in silviculture and protection of forests. The
harvesting operationscan be separated in these technical elements

13. Forest Management Planning

In a wide context the planning implies a systematic consideration of all possible actions
within a certain field, with the purpose of coordinating all these actions in an efficient way
in order to reach given objectives or goals.

Without defined objectives or purpose of these actions, it is useless to do planning.

Similarly, it will not be possible to win a football match if the goals on the football field are
removed. A football match will also be quite uninteresting for everyone without the

Introduction to Forestry 35
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

possibility to reach the goal.

There is no point in planting forest trees, to do pruning or thinning, harvesting or other

silviculture activities if the forester or the forest owner does not know what she/he wants to
achieve by these activities: the objectives for the forest work must be defined and be well
known.

In forestry the management planning is based on several documents, of which the Forestry
Law may be considered as being the most important. The Forestry Law outlines the general
and nationals goals with the management of the forests as natural resource.
The forestry law in Kosova is among other details, based on these principles (see chapter 8)
• Precautionary principles.
• Conservation of biological diversity.
• Principal of the intergeneration equity.
• Sustainable ecological development.

The state and the municipality very often have different objectives for the forest
management than what is the case for a private landowner. Within the framework of the
overall national forest policy, the private or the public forest owner may have specific
objectives such as

To secure a certain annual income in terms of money

To create an economic surplus sufficient to maintain and renew the necessary equipment
To minimize the costs and work safer and more efficiently Employment of one or more
forest workers
To produce a given quantity of firewood or bio energy every year
To produce a given quantity of technical wood for the wood based industry, either today or
in the future.
To maintain and develop the forested area for sustainable production To secure the
biodiversity
To secure and develop the local income from non-wood products

A general rule in forestry is that over a period of time, the harvesting of wood from a given

Introduction to Forestry 36
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

forest should not exceed the increment or production from this forest during the same period
of time. The harvesting of the forest will then be sustainable. There are various methods of
calculating the sustainable annual harvest from a forest.
Other resources and information to be considered are; the available staff and their
qualifications, the forest roads and transport capacity, the available machinery, the available
capital, the costs for licenses and other harvesting costs, as well as the market for the
harvested products.
Some general principles in the process of Forest Management Planning are as follows.
1 Definitions of the general objectives
2 Date collection of the available resources, necessary to make a plan
3 Analysis of the resource assessment
4 Make a synthesis of this analysis and find the most likely and optimal set
5 of activities.
6 Writing and editing the forest management plan for the forest in question
7 Implementation of the plan
8 Control of the quality, quantities, qualities and economic results and make possible
adjustments of the written plan and/or make adjustment on the activities, based on the
experiences gained
Quite often there are developed certain routines and standards for forest management
planning. These standards may be very useful, but one must be aware that such standards
may not always be the best for all categories of forests or forest owners. Any professional
forester including the professional forest worker should be able to read and understand the
content of forest management plans, because such plans are the basis for most of the forest
activities.

Introduction to Forestry 37
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Lecture-5

Silviculture terminology

Modified from a work made by the Silviculture Instructors Subgroup Silviculture Working
Group Society of American Foresters (1994)
Advance Regeneration (Reproduction)
Seedlings or saplings that develop or are present in the understorey of the vegetation.
Afforestation
Establishment of a forest or forest stand in an area not recently forested.
Age Class
A distinct aggregation of trees or a grouping of trees, e.g., 10-year age class, as used in
inventory or management.
Artificial Regeneration (Reproduction)
An age class created by direct seeding or by planting seedlings or cuttings.
Basal Area
The area of the cross section of a tree stem, including the bark, generally at breast height (1,3
m above the ground).
Breast Height
A standard height 1,3 m above the average ground level for recording diameter, girth, or
basal area of a tree.
Burning, Prescribed
The application of fire, usually under existing stands and under specified conditions of
weather and moisture, in order to attain silviculture or other management objectives.
Canopy
The foliar /needle cover in a forest stand.
Canopy Closure (see Crown Cover)
Cleaning
A release treatment made in an age class not past the sapling stage in order to free the
favored trees from less desirable individuals of the same age class that overtop them or are
likely to do so (see Improvement Cutting, Liberating, Weeding).

Composition, Stand

Introduction to Forestry 38
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

The proportion of each tree species in a stand expressed as a percentage of either the total
number, basal area, or volume of the important tree species in the stand.
Crop Tree
Any tree that is selected to become a component of a future commercial harvest.
Crown
The part of a tree bearing live branches and foliage.
Crown Class
A class of trees based on crown position relative to the crowns of adjacent trees.
Emergent
Trees with crowns completely above the general level of the main canopy receiving full light
from above and from the sides.
Dominant
Trees with crowns extending above the general level of the main canopy of even-aged stands
or, in uneven-aged stands, above the crowns of the tree's immediate neighbors, and receiving
full light from above and partly from the sides.
Co-dominant
Trees with crowns forming the general level of the main canopy in even-aged stands or, in
uneven-aged stands, the main canopy of the tree's immediate neighbors, receiving full light
from above and comparatively little from the sides
Intermediate
Trees with crowns extending into the lower portion of the main canopy of even-aged stands
or, in uneven-aged stands, into the lower portion of the canopy formed by the tree's
immediate neighbors, but shorter in height than the co-dominants. They receive little direct
light from above and none from the sides.
Suppressed
Trees of varying levels of vigor that have their crowns completely covered by the crowns of
one or more neighboring trees.
Crown Cover
The ground area covered by the crowns of trees or woody vegetation as delimited by the
vertical projection of crown perimeters and commonly expressed as a percent of total
ground area
Crown Density

Introduction to Forestry 39
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

The amount and compactness of foliage of the crowns of trees and/or shrubs as seen
vertically from above.
Cutting Cycle
The planned interval between partial harvests in an uneven-aged stand.
Even-aged Stand
A stand of trees containing a single age class in which the range of tree ages is usually less
than 20 percent of the rotation age
Even-aged System
A planned sequence of treatments designed to maintain and regenerate a stand with one age
class. The range of tree ages is usually less than 20 percent of the rotation.
Seed Tree, Shelter wood, Coppice)

Forest Fertilization
The addition of nutrient elements for increased growth rate.
Genotype
The genetic constitution of an organism in terms of its hereditary characteristics as
distinguished from its physical appearance or phenotype
Habitat
The place where an animal or plant naturally or normally lives and develops
Harvesting Method
A cutting by which a stand is logged. Emphasis is on meeting logging and economic
requirements while concurrently attaining silvicultural objectives.
Improvement Cutting
A cutting made in a stand pole-sized or larger primarily to improve composition and quality
by removing less desirable trees of any species.
Ingrowth
Trees that during a specified period have grown past an arbitrary lower limit of (usually)
diameter or height.
Intermediate Treatments (Tending)
A collective term for any treatment designed to enhance growth, quality, vigor, and
composition of the stand after establishment or regeneration and prior to final harvest.
Liberating
A release treatment made in a stand not past the sapling stage in order to free the favored

Introduction to Forestry 40
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

trees from competition of older, domination trees.

Monoculture
A stand of a single species, generally even-aged.
Mycorrhizae
The symbiotic association between certain fungi and plant roots which enhances the uptake
of water and nutrients.
Natural Regeneration
An age class of trees created from natural seeding, sprouting, suckering, or layering.
Nurse Tree (Nurse Crop)
A tree, or group of trees, used to nurture, improve survival or improve the form of a more
desirable tree or crop when young by protecting it from frost, insulation, or wind.
Overstory Removal
The cutting of trees comprising an upper canopy layer in order to release trees in an
understory.
Phenotype
The observed, visible trait of an individual tree as the interaction of the individual's genotype
and its environment.
Pole
A tree between the size of a sapling and a mature tree and which can be used for as poles in
fences etc.
Pre-commercial Thinning
A thinning that does not yield trees of commercial value, usually designed to reduce stocking
in order to concentrate growth on the more desirable trees.
Pruning. The removal of the live branches up to 4 -5 meters on a tree in order to improve
high quality stems for a specific final use.
Reforestation
The natural or artificial restocking or reproduction of an area with trees.
Regeneration
Seedlings or saplings existing in a stand; or the act of establishing young trees naturally or
artificially.
Regeneration Method
A cutting method by which a new generation of trees is created. The major methods are

Introduction to Forestry 41
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Clear cutting, Seed Tree, Shelter wood, Selection, and Coppice.

Coppice
A method of regenerating a stand in which all trees in the previous stand are cut and the
majority of regeneration is from sprouts or root suckers.
Coppice with Reserves
A coppice method in which reserve trees are retained to attain goals other than regeneration.
The method normally creates a two-aged stand.
Even-aged Methods
Methods to regenerate a stand with a single age class.
Clear cutting
A method of regenerating an even-aged stand in which a new age class develops in a fully
exposed microclimate after removal, in a single cubing, of all commercial trees in the
previous stand. Regeneration is from natural seeding, direct seeding, planted seedlings,
and/or advance reproduction..
Seed Tree
The small number of trees left to provide seed. Seed trees are removed after regeneration is
established.
Shelter wood
The residual trees left after the removal of most of an even-aged stand in which a new age
class develops beneath these trees. This shelter wood is removed when the regeneration is
well established.
Two-aged Methods
Methods designed to maintain and regenerate a stand with two age classes. In each case the
resulting stand may be two-aged or tend toward an uneven-aged condition as a consequence
of both an extended period of regeneration establishment and the retention of reserve trees
that may represent one or more age classes.
Clear cutting with Reserves
A clear cutting method in which varying numbers of reserve trees are not harvested to attain
goals other than regeneration.
Seed Tree with Reserves
A seed tree method in which some or all of the seed trees are retained after regeneration has
become established to attain goals other than regeneration.

Introduction to Forestry 42
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Uneven-aged (Selection) Methods

Methods of regenerating a forest stand, and maintaining an uneven-aged structure, by
removing some trees in all size classes either singly, in small groups, or in steps.
Group Selection
A method of regenerating uneven-aged stands in which trees are removed, and new age
classes are established, in small groups.

Group Selection with Reserves

A variant of the Group Selection Method in which some trees within the group are not cut to
attain goals other than regeneration within the group.
Single Tree Selection
A method of creating new age classes in uneven-aged stands in which individual trees of all
size classes are removed more-or-less uniformly throughout the stand to achieve desired
stand structural characteristics.
Regeneration Period
The time between the initial regeneration cutting and the successful reestablishment of a new
age class by natural means, planting, or direct seeding.
Regular Uneven-aged Stand
A stand in which different age classes occupy approximately equal areas and provide a
balanced distribution of diameter classes.
Release (Release Operation)
A treatment designed to free young trees from undesirable, competing vegetation.
Treatments include cleaning, liberating, and weeding.

Reserve Trees (Green Tree Retention)

Trees, pole-sized or larger, retained after the regeneration period under the Clear cutting,
Seed Tree, Shelter wood, or Coppice Methods
Root Pruning
The root pruning of seedlings in a nursery bed to limit the extension of roots in depth or
laterally.
Rotation age
In even-aged systems, the period between regeneration establishment and final cutting.

Introduction to Forestry 43
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

Salvage Cutting
The removal of dead trees or trees being damaged or dying due to injurious agents other than
competition, to recover value that would otherwise be lost.
Sanitation Cutting
The removal of trees to improve stand health by stopping or reducing actual or anticipated
spread of insects and disease.
Sapling
A young tree that is larger than a seedling but smaller than a pole
Scarification
Mechanical removal of competing vegetation and/or interfering debris, or disturbance of the
soil surface, designed to enhance reforestation.
Silviculture
The science of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of
forests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs and values of landowners and society on a
sustainable basis.
Silvicultural System
A planned process whereby a stand is tended, harvested, and reestablished. The system name
is based on the number of age classes (see Even-aged, Two-aged, Uneven-aged), and/or the
regeneration method used.
Site Class
A classification of site quality, usually expressed in terms of ranges of dominant tree height
at a given age or at culmination of mean annual increment.

Site Index
A measure of actual or potential forest productivity expressed in terms of the average height
of a certain number of dominant trees in the stand at an index age.
Site Preparation
A hand or mechanized manipulation of a site designed to enhance the success of
regeneration. Treatments may include bedding, burning, chemical spraying, chopping,
disking, drainage, raking, and scarifying. All treatments are designed to modify the soil,
litter, and vegetation and to create microclimate conditions conducive to the establishment
and growth of desired species.
Site Quality (Productivity)

Introduction to Forestry 44
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

The productive capacity of a site usually expressed as mean annual volume production per
hectare.
Stand
A contiguous group of trees sufficiently uniform in age class distribution, composition, and
structure, and growing on a site of sufficiently uniform quality, to be a distinguishable unit
(see Mixed, Pure, Even-aged, and Stratified Mixture.
Mixed Stand
A stand in which there is a mixture of species.
Pure Stand
A stand composed of essentially a single species.
Stratified Mixture
A stand in which different species occupy different strata of the total crown canopy.
Stand Density
A quantitative, absolute measure of tree occupancy per hectare in such terms as numbers of
trees per hectare, basal area in m2 per hectare or volume in m3 per hectare.
Stand Improvement
All intermediate cuttings made to improve the composition, structure, condition, health, and
growth of even- or uneven-aged stands.
Stocking
An indication of growing-space occupancy relative to a pre-established standard. Common
indices of stocking are based on percent occupancy, basal area, relative density, and crown
competition factor.
Stratum
A distinct layer of vegetation within a forest community.
Structure
The horizontal and vertical distribution of components of a forest stand including the height,
diameter, crown layers and stems of trees, shrubs, herbaceous understory, snags, and woody
debris.

Succession
A series of dynamic changes by which organisms succeed one another through a series of
plant community stages leading to potential natural community or climax.
Sustainable maintain a steady level of use, without exhausting or causing ecological damage

Introduction to Forestry 45
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

to the natural resources.

Thinning
A cultural treatment made to reduce stand density of trees primarily to improve growth and
quality, enhance forest health, or to recover potential mortality.
Crown Thinning (High Thinning)
The removal of trees from the dominant and co-dominant crown classes in order to favor the
best trees of those same crown classes.
Free Thinning. The removal of trees to control stand spacing and favor desired trees using a
combination of thinning criteria without regard to crown position.
Low Thinning (Thinning from Below)
The removal of trees from the lower crown classes to favor those in the upper crown classes.
Mechanical Thinning (Geometric Thinning)
The thinning of trees in either even- or uneven-aged stands involving removal of trees in
rows, strips, or by using fixed spacing intervals to favor simple and economical sound
harvesting methods.
Selection Thinning (Dominant Thinning)
The removal of trees in the dominant crown class in order to favor the lower crown classes.

Thinning Interval
The period between successive thinning operations during the life span of the stand.
Tolerance, Shade
The relative capacity of a plant to become established and grow beneath overtopping
vegetation where the light is limited
Two-aged Stand
A stand composed of two distinct age classes separated in age by more than 20 percent of
rotation age.
Two-aged System
A planned sequence of treatments designed to maintain and regenerate a stand with two age
classes.
Undercutting
The root pruning of seedlings in a nursery bed to limit root depth extension.

Uneven-aged Stand

Introduction to Forestry 46
Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95200-90200

A stand of trees of three or more distinct age classes..

Uneven-aged System
A planned sequence of treatments designed to maintain and regenerate a stand with three or
more age classes.
Weeding
A release treatment in stands not past the sapling stage that eliminates or suppresses
undesirable vegetation regardless of crown position.
Wrenching
The disturbance of seedling roots in a nursery bed (e.g., with a tractor-drawn blade) with the
objective of stimulating the development of a fibrous root system.

Introduction to Forestry 47