CHAPTER-4 [ STRUCTURAL DESIGN]

CHAPTER-4 PLASTIC ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
The elastic design method, also termed as allowable stress method (or Working stress
method), is a conventional method of design based on the elastic properties of steel. This
method of design limits the structural usefulness of the material up to a certain allowable
stress, which is well below the elastic limit. The stresses due to working loads do not exceed
the specified allowable stresses, which are obtained by applying an adequate factor of safety
to the yield stress of steel. The elastic design does not take into account the strength of the
material beyond the elastic stress. Therefore the structure designed according to this method
will be heavier than that designed by plastic methods, but in many cases, elastic design will
also require less stability bracing.
In the method of plastic design of a structure, the ultimate load rather than the yield stress is
regarded as the design criterion. The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate
load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range. This method is also known as
method of load factor design or ultimate load design. The strength of steel beyond the yield
stress is fully utilised in this method. This method is rapid and provides a rational approach
for the analysis of the structure. This method also provides striking economy as regards the
weight of steel since the sections designed by this method are smaller in size than those
designed by the method of elastic design. Plastic design method has its main application in the
analysis and design of statically indeterminate framed structures.
4.2 Basis of Plastic Theory
a) Ductility of Steel
Structural steel is characterised by its capacity to withstand considerable deformation beyond
first yield, without fracture. During the process of 'yielding' the steel deforms under a constant
and uniform stress known as 'yield stress'. This property of steel, known as ductility, is utilised
in plastic design methods.
Fig.1 shows the idealised stress-strain relationship for structural mild steel when it is
subjected to direct tension. Elastic straining of the material is represented by line OA. AB
represents yielding of the material when the stress remains constant, and is equal to the yield
stress, fy. The strain occurring in the material during yielding remains after the load has been

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removed and is called the plastic strain and this strain is at least ten times as large as the
elastic strain, y at yield point.

Strain hardening

A B
fy
Strain hardening
Stress f

commences

O Strain 
Fig. 1 Idealized stress – strain curve for steel in tension

When subjected to compression, the stress-strain characteristics of various grades of structural

steel are largely similar to Fig. 1 and display the same property of yield. The major difference
is in the strain hardening range where there is no drop in stress after a peak value. This
characteristic is known as ductility of steel.
b) Perfectly Plastic Materials
The stress-strain curve for a perfectly plastic material up to strain hardening is shown in Fig.
2. Perfectly plastic materials follow Hook's law up to the limit of proportionality. The slope
of stress-strain diagrams in compression and tension i.e. the values of Young's modulus of
elasticity of the material, are equal. Also the values of yield stresses in tension and
compression are equal. The strains up to the strain hardening in tension and compression are
also equal. The stress strain curves show horizontal plateau both in tension and compression.
Such materials are known as perfectly plastic materials.

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STRESS

fy TENSION

STRAIN

f
COMPRESSION y

Fig. 2 Stress - Strain Curve for perfectly plastic materials

c) Fully Plastic Moment of a Section
The fully plastic moment Mp, of a section is defined as the maximum moment of resistance of
a fully plasticized or yielded cross-section. The assumptions used for finding the plastic
moment of a section are:
(i) The material obeys Hooke's law until the stress reaches the upper yield value; on further
straining, the stress drops to the lower yield value and thereafter remains constant.
(ii) The yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have the same value in compression as in
tension.
(iii) The material is homogeneous and isotropic in both the elastic and plastic states.
(iv) The plane transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the
beam) remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis after bending, the effect of
shear being neglected.
(v) There is no resultant axial force on the beam.
(vi) The cross section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid parallel
to plane of bending.
(vii) Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally and laterally
under the stress as if separated from the other layers.
In order to find out the fully plastic moment of a yielded section of a beam as shown in Fig. 3,
we employ the force equilibrium equation, namely the total force in compression and the total
force in tension over that section are equal.

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fy
b

d/2 C

d d/2

fy

Figure 3 Plastic theory

Total compression, C = Total tension, T

C = fy. (d/2).b
Moment set up in the section = fy . (d/2).b*d/2 = fy . bd2/4
Plastic Moment of resistance, Mp = fy . Zp
Where Zp = Plastic section modulus
Hence for a rectangular section, equating the moment set up internally and the external
moment, Zp = bd2/4
Similarly, based on figure 4, in elastic theory,
Total compression, C = Total tension, T
Then, f .½ (d/2).b = [Link]/4
Moment set up in the section = [Link]/4 * 2d/3 = f . bd2/6
Elastic Moment of resistance, Me = f . Ze
Where Ze = Plastic section modulus
Hence for a rectangular section, equating the moment set up internally and the external
moment, Ze = bd2/6

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b f
d/6
C
d/2

d 2d/3

Figure 4 Elastic theory

Collapse load: - The load which causes the collapse moment (Plastic moment) Mp is referred
as collapse load
Shape factor:- The ratio of the plastic modulus (Zp) to the elastic modulus (Ze) is known as
the shape factor (S= Z p/ Ze)
Mp = Zp. fy; Me = Ze. fy
Therefore, shape factor can also be said as the ratio of the collapse moment (Mp) to the elastic
moment (Me). (S= Mp / Me )
For a rectangular cross section the plastic moment Mp is about 1.5 times greater than the
elastic moment capacity (i.e. Shape factor is 1.5). In developing this moment, there is a large
straining in the extreme fibres together with large rotations and deflection. This behaviour
may be plotted as a moment-rotation curve. Curves for various cross sections are shown in
Fig. below. 1
S
a (S 1.00) b
1.00
0.87
(S  1.15)
0.67 (S  1.50)
(S  1.80) bd 2
M  fy
6

o
Rotation

Moment – rotation curves

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For the theoretically ideal section in bending i.e. two flange plates connected by a web of
insignificant thickness, this will have a value of 1. When the material at the centre of the
section is increased, the value of S increases. For a universal beam the value is about 1.15
increasing to 1.5 for a rectangle.
Load factor: - The ratio of the collapse load to the working load is called load factor
Elastic Neutral Axis (ENA) and Plastic Neutral Axis (PNA)
ENA: - An axis passes through CG of the section.
PNA: - An axis which divides the area of the section equally. For a section which is
symmetrical about the CG axis, PNA and ENA will be the same.
For a rectangular section, Zp = bd2/4
Zp = bd/2 *d/2 = 2(bd/2 *d/4)
Zp = 2(Area of the section above PNA * Centroidal distance of that area from PNA)
The plastic modulus of a completely yielded section is defined as the combined statical
moment of the cross-sectional areas above and below the neutral axis or equal area axis. It is
the resisting modulus of a completely plasticised section.
4.3 Bending of Beams Symmetrical About Both Axes
The bending of a symmetrical beam subjected to a gradually increasing moment is considered
first. The fibres of the beam across the cross section are stressed in tension or compression
according to their position relative to the neutral axis and are strained in accordance with Fig.
1.
f

f  fy
Neutral Axis

Fig. 5 Elastic stresses in beams

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While the beam remains entirely elastic the stress in every fibre is proportional to its strain
and to its distance from the neutral axis. The stress (f) in the extreme fibres cannot exceed fy.
(See Fig. 5)
When the beam is subjected to a moment slightly greater than that, which first produces yield
in the extreme fibres, it does not fail. Instead the outer fibres yield at constant stress (fy) while
the fibres nearer to the neutral axis sustain increased elastic stresses. Fig. 6 shows the stress
distribution for beams subjected to such moments.
Such beams are said to be 'partially plastic' and those portions of their cross-sections, which
have reached the yield stress, are described as 'plastic zones'.

Plastic Zone (Compression) fy

Neutral Axis

fy
Plastic Zone (Tension)
(a) Rectangular (b) I - section (c) Stress distribution
section for (a) or (b)

Fig. 6 Stresses in partially plastic beams

The depths of the plastic zones depend upon the magnitude of the applied moment. As the
moment is increased, the plastic zones increase in depth, and, it is assumed that plastic
yielding can occur at yield stress (fy) resulting in two stress blocks, one zone yielding in
tension and one in compression. Fig. 7 represents the stress distribution in beams stressed to
this stage. The plastic zones occupy the whole of the cross section, and are described as being
'fully plastic'. When the cross section of a member is fully plastic under a bending moment,
any attempt to increase this moment will cause the member to act as if hinged at the neutral
axis. This is referred to as a plastic hinge.
The bending moment producing a plastic hinge is called the full plastic moment and is
denoted by 'Mp'. Note that a plastic hinge carries a constant moment, MP.

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b fy

Neutral Axis
d

fy
(a) Rectangular
Section (b) I - section (c) Stress distribution
for (a) or (b)
Fig. 7 Stresses in fully plastic beams
4.4 Plastic Hinges
In deciding the manner in which a beam may fail it is desirable to understand the concept of
how plastic hinges form where the beam is fully plastic.
At the plastic hinge an infinitely large rotation can occur under a constant moment equal to
the plastic moment of the section. Plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to bending in
a structural member at which an infinite rotation can take place at a constant plastic moment
Mp of the section. The number of hinges necessary for failure does not vary for a particular
structure subject to a given loading condition, although a part of a structure may fail
independently by the formation of a smaller number of hinges. The member or structure
behaves in the manner of a hinged mechanism and in doing so adjacent hinges rotate in
opposite directions.
Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at points at which plastic rotations occur.
Thus the length of a plastic hinge is considered as zero.
The values of moment, at the adjacent section of the yield zone are more than the yield
moment up to a certain length L, of the structural member. This length L, is known as the
hinged length. The hinged length depends upon the type of loading and the geometry of the
cross-section of the structural member. The region of hinged length is known as region of
yield or plasticity.
a) Hinged Length of a Simply Supported Beam with Central Concentrated Load

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b
L/2 L/2
x

MY MY
Mp

Fig. 8: Hinged Length

In a simply supported beam with central concentrated load, the maximum bending moment
occurs at the centre of the beam. As the load is increased gradually, this moment reaches the
fully plastic moment of the section Mp and a plastic hinge is formed at the centre.

Wl
Mp 
4
bh 2  bh 2 
 fy   Z p  
 
4  4 
bh 2  bh 2  2
My  fy    f y  
6  4  3

2
 My  Mp
3

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Let x (= L) be the length of plasticity zone. From the bending moment diagram shown in
Fig. 8

My Mp

L x L

2 2 2
L x
My 
 2 2
Mp L
2
My x
 1 
Mp L
L  x M p  L  My

L  x M p  L
2
M p
3
1
x  L
3
Therefore the hinged length of the plasticity zone is equal to one-third of the span in this case.
4.5 Fundamental Conditions for Plastic Analysis
(i) Mechanism condition: The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is
formed. The number of plastic hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a
mechanism.
(ii) Equilibrium condition : Fx = 0, Fy = 0, Mxy = 0
(iii) Plastic moment condition: The bending moment at any section of the structure should
not be more than the fully plastic moment of the section.
I. Mechanism
When a system of loads is applied to an elastic body, it will deform and will show a resistance
against deformation. Such a body is known as a structure. On the other hand if no resistance
is set up against deformation in the body, then it is known as a mechanism. Mechanism can
be classified in to two; independent and combine mechanism.

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 Various types of independent mechanisms are:

(i) Beam Mechanism
Fig. 9 sketches three simple structures and the corresponding mechanisms.
(a) A simply supported beam has to form
one plastic hinge at the point of
maximum bending moment.
Redundancy (Indeterminacy), ID = 0

(b) A propped cantilever requires two

hinges to form a mechanism.
Redundancy (Indeterminacy), ID = 1
No. of plastic hinges formed,
= ID+ 1 = 2

(c) A fixed beam requires three hinges to

form a mechanism.
Redundancy (Indeterminacy), ID = 2
No. of plastic hinges = 2 + 1 = 3

Fig. 9
From the above examples, it is seen that the number of hinges needed to form a mechanism
equals the static redundancy of the structure plus one.
(ii) Panel or Sway Mechanism
Fig. 10(a) shows a panel or sway mechanism for a portal frame fixed at both ends.

(a) Panel Mechanism (b) Gable Mechanism (c) Joint Mechanism

Fig. 10

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(iii) Gable Mechanism

Fig. 10 (b) shows the gable mechanism for a gable structure fixed at both the supports.
(iv) Joint Mechanism

Fig. 10 (c) shows a joint mechanism. It occurs at a joint where more than two structural
members meet.
 Combined Mechanism
Various combinations of independent mechanisms can be made depending upon whether the frame
is made of strong beam and weak column combination or strong column and weak beam
combination. The one shown in Fig.11 is a combination of a beam and sway mechanism. Failure is
triggered by formation of hinges at the bases of the columns and the weak beam developing two
hinges. This is illustrated by the right hinge being shown on the beam, in a position slightly away
from the joint.
Two hinges developed on
the beam

Fig. 11 Combined Mechanisms

Collapse Mechanisms

• The insertion of a real hinge, or pin joint, into a statically indeterminate stiff frame reduces
the number of indeterminate moments by one.
• Hence, if the number of indeterminacies is ID, the addition of ID hinges produces a simple
statically determinate structure.
• The addition of one more hinge will allow the structure to move with one degree of
freedom. That is, a mechanism is formed when the number of hinges to form a collapse
mechanism is (ID + 1).
• From elementary structural mechanics, we are reminded that the number of
Indeterminacies in a 2D (rigid-jointed) frame is: 3m + r – 3j,

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Where: - m- is the number of members

r -is the number of independent reactions, and
j- is the number of joints (including at the supports).
• For a beam, the number of indeterminacies is (2m + r – 2j) since there is no horizontal
reaction.
4.6 Load Factor and Theorems of Plastic Collapse
The load factor at rigid plastic collapse (p) is defined as the lowest multiple of the design loads
which will cause the whole structure, or any part of it to become a mechanism. In a limit state
approach, the designer is seeking to ensure that at the appropriate factored loads the structure will
not fail.
Thus the rigid plastic load factor p must not be less than unity. The number of independent
mechanisms (n) is related to the number of possible plastic hinge locations (h) and the number of
degree of redundancy (r) of the frame by the equation. n = h – ID
Plastic analysis of structures is governed by three theorems, which are;
a) Lower Bound or Static Theorem
This theorem states that for given frame and loading, if there exists any distribution of BM
throughout the frame which is both safe and statically admissible, with a set of loads w, the value
of w must be less than or equal to wc (Collapse load)
(If the distribution of BM is such that it satisfies all conditions of equilibrium it is a statically
admissible distribution. If the distribution of BM is such that the fully plastic moment is not
exceeding any where in the frame, it is called a safe distribution.)
In other words, a load factor (s ) computed on the basis of an arbitrarily assumed bending moment
diagram which is in equilibrium with the applied loads and where the fully plastic moment of
resistance is nowhere exceeded will always be less than or at best equal to the load factor at rigid
plastic collapse, (p).
p is the highest value of s which can be found.
b) Upper Bound or Kinematic Theorem
For a given frame subjected to a set of loads w, the value of w which is found to be corresponding
to any assumed mechanism will always be greater than or equal to the actual collapse load wc.

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If the values of w corresponding to a number of mechanisms for a given frame under given set of
loading are found, the collapse load wc will be the smallest of all these found.
A load factor (k) computed on the basis of an arbitrarily assumed mechanism will always be
greater than, or at best equal to the load factor at rigid plastic collapse (p )
p is the lowest value of k which can be found.
c) Uniqueness Theorem
If both the above criteria are satisfied, then the resulting load factor corresponds to its value at
rigid plastic collapse (p).
There are a various methods that can be used to perform plastic analysis for given structures: these
are
 Equilibrium method
 Virtual work method (energy principle)
In this course, we will mainly focus on the virtual work method.
The virtual-work method
The structure under consideration is assumed to be loaded to its plastic capacity, mp. Then it is
assumed to deflect through a small additional displacement after the ultimate load is reached. The
work performed by the external loads during this displacement is equated to internal work
absorbed by the hinges.
Total External work done = Total internal work done
Wext = Wint
For this case, the small-angle theory (i.e. Sin θ = tan θ = θ), where θ expressed in radians. The
value for the collapse or plastic load p is the smallest when expressed in terms of mp. Or the
plastic moment capacity mp is the largest when expressed in terms of p.
The followings points are the location of possible plastic hinges
 At the point of concentrated load
 At the fixed support
 At the joint
 At the point of maximum bending moment
 At the point of geometrical changes

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Example 1: Determine the shape factor for a circular section of diameter d.

Solution

d 4
64  d
3

Ze = I/ymax = 2d/3π
d / 2 32
PNA &
Zp = Moment of areas above and ENA
below PNA about PNA
 d 2 1   2d  d3 d
= 
 4 * 2  *  3  * 2 
    6
d3 /6 32
  1.7
d / 32 6
Shape factor Zp /Ze = 3

Example 2:
Determine the plastic moment of resistance of a symmetrical I section shown in the figure.
Area of the section = 2(0.4D*0.1D) + (D – 0.2D)*(0.1D) = 0.16D2
Depth of PNA = 0.5 D

Plastic Modulus of section = Moment of areas

above and below PNA about PNA
Zp = 2[0.4D * 0.1D * 0.45D] + 0.1D
2[0.1D * 0.4D * 0.2D] D
3
= 0.016D
Plastic Moment of Resistance
Mp = fy * Zp = 0.016 D3fy
0.4D

Example 3:
Determine the shape factor for the beam section shown below. Find also the fully plastic moment
of the beam section. Take fy = 230 N/mm2.
Solution

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PNA falls at 150/2 = 75 mm from extreme fibres

Plastic Modulus of section = Moment of areas
above and below PNA about PNA 12.5
Zp = 2[100 * 12.5 * 68.75] + mm 150 mm
2[12.5 * 62.5 * 62.5/2]
= 2.207 * 105 mm3

100mm

Moment of Inertia I = [100 *1503/12] – [87.5 * 1253/12]

= 13883464 mm4
13883464
Elastic modulus of section Ze = I/ymax =  1.851 * 105 mm3
75
2.207 * 105
Shape factor Zp/Ze =  1.19
1.851* 105
Plastic Moment of Resistance
Mp = fy * Zp = 230 * 2.207 * 105 * 10-6 = 50.761 kNm
Example 4
A UB 305 * 127 * 37 section is used as a simply supported beam of span 5m. Find the shape factor
of the beam section. If the beam carries a point load of 80 kN at the mid span, find the load factor.
Take the yield strength of steel as 250 MPa.
Solution
From steel tables, Iy = 7160 cm4 = 7160 * 104 mm4
tf = 10.7 mm; tw = 7.2 mm h = 303.8 mm b = 123.5 mm
Wel,y = 472 * 103 mm3 (Ze) Wpl,y = 540 * 103 mm3 (Zp)

Shape factor Zp/Ze = 540  1.144

472
To find the load factor we need to find the collapse load.
Let the collapse load be C
BM due to collapse load = C*L/4 = C * 5/4 = 1.25 C Nm = 1250 C Nmm
Moment of resistance corresponding to the collapse condition
Mp = fy * Zp
ie. 1250 C = 250 * 540 * 103

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C = 108000 N = 108 kN

Load factor = Collapse load / Working load = 108  1.35

80
Determination of collapse load for some standard cases
1. Simply Supported beam carrying a non central concentrated load W
a. Static method:
Maximum BM under the load = Wab / L
When the load is increased to collapse load, Max. BM = Wc*ab/L = Mp
Mp * l
Therefore, Wc =
ab
b. Kinematic method: Collapse load causes a hinge under the load. θ= Angle of rotation
of the left portion of the beam , deflection below the load = a θ

W
a b

θ θ1=aθ/b
aθ
(θ + θ1)

θ1 = Angle of rotation of the right portion of the beam = a θ/b

Rotation of the hinge under the action of plastic moment = θ+θ1
a  *l
=  
b b
 *l
The work absorbed by the hinge = Mp *
b
Mp *  * l
Work done by the load = Wc * a θ =
b
Mp * l
Wc = as before.
ab
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2. Fixed beam carrying UDL throughout the span

The moment at collapse of a fixed beam with a uniform load is worked out from Fig below. It
should be noted that three hinges are required to be formed at A, B and C just before collapse.

W / unit length
P=0 P=0 Loading
M A C B
MB
A L

MP   MP
Collapse
MP MP 2

Fixed Beam

Work done at the three plastic hinges =Mp ( + 2 +  ) = 4Mp

Work done by the displacement of the load =W/L . L/2 . L/2 . 

WL
  4M p
4
WL  16 M p
WL
Mp 
16
In other words the load causing plastic collapse of a section of known value of Mp is given. All the
three hinges at A, B and C will have a plastic moment of Mp.
3. Continuous Beams
Consider next the three span continuous beam of uniform section throughout (constant Mp) as
shown in Fig. below. Here a conventional approach is more laborious but the collapse load may be
readily determined by consideration of the collapse patterns. Each pattern represents the
conversion of each of the three spans into mechanism.

10W 10W 6W
W

A B C

2L 2L 3L 2L 2L 3L

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Collapse mechanism 1:

10W 10W 6W

 
2
Work done in hinges = Mp ( 2 +  ) = 3 Mp
Work done by loads = 10 W( 2L ) = 20WL
Collapse load, Wc = 3 Mp / 20L = 0.15 Mp / L

Collapse mechanism 2:

10W 10W 6W
WW
WW

2 3

5

Work done in plastic hinges = Mp ( 2 + 5 + 3 ) = 10 Mp 

Work done by loads = 10W( 6L ) = 60 WL
Collapse load, Wc = 10 Mp / 60 L = 0.17 Mp / L

Collapse mechanism 3:

10W 10W 6W

3 2
5

Work done in hinges = Mp ( 3 + 5 ) = 8 Mp 

Work done by loads = 6W (6L  ) = 36 WL
Collapse load, Wc = 8 Mp / 36L = 0.22 Mp / L
Thus collapse will occur in collapse mechanism-I, When Wc = 0.15 Mp / L

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