Prepared by:

Ms. Queen April Libay-Daquipil

After going through this module, you are
expected to:
1. Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and
animals: reproduction, development and nutrition.
 Lesson 1:
Plant Reproduction vs. Animal
Reproduction
Reproduction is an important
feature of living organisms
because it ensures continuity
of species.
1. Asexual reproduction
• common among lower form of
animals
• fusion of egg cell and sperm cell
does not occur
• reproduction is mainly through
mitosis
• clone of the parent
• Do not have the genetic variation
to survive in new or different
conditions.
2. Sexual reproduction
• observed by more complex animals
• involves the production of offspring by
the fusion of haploid gametes (sperm
and ovum).
• increases the chances of species
variation
• species extinction is highly unlikely
1. Binary Fission
• is the separation/division of an organism to form individuals of
approximately same size.
• An organism appears to split itself into two parts and which will then form
new organisms.
2. Budding
• results from the outgrowth of a part of the body leading to a separation of the
“bud” from the original organism and the formation of two individuals, one
smaller than the other. The offspring typically remain attached to the parent
until it is mature.
3. Fragmentation and Regeneration
• Fragmentation is when an animal’s body breaks into
different parts, which later regenerate to form several
individuals.
• Fragmentation may occur through accidental damage,
damage from predators, or as a natural form of
reproduction.

Note: Fragmentation, there is generally a noticeable

difference in the size of the individuals.
Fission, two individuals of approximately the same
size are formed.
4. Parthenogenesis
• is like apomixes in plants, where the egg cell develops without fertilization.
It can more accurately be termed as an “incomplete form of sexual
reproduction.
1. Hermaphrodism
• one organism has both male and female reproductive parts
• may self-fertilize or may mate with another of their species, fertilizing each
other and both producing offspring
• Self fertilization is common in animals that have limited mobility or are not
motile.
1. Hermaphrodism
• Sequential hermaphroditism occurs when an
individual reverses its sex during its lifetime.
• Two types of sequential hermaphrodites:
o Protogynous when individuals start out
life as a female and change sex to male.
o Protandrous when individuals start out
life as a male and change to female.
2. External Fertilization

• Usually occurs in aquatic environments where

both eggs and sperm are released into the water.
After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes
place.
• Most external fertilization happens during the
process of spawning where one or several females
release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm
in the same area, at the same time.
• The spawning may be triggered by environmental
signals, such as water temperature or the length
of daylight.
Amplexus – latin mean embrace Red crab spawning in shallow water
Sea cucumber Sea urchins
3. Internal Fertilization

• The union of egg and sperm occurs within the female reproductive tract.
Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce offspring in any
of the following ways: oviparity, ovoviviparity, and viviparity.
3. Internal Fertilization

a) Oviparity
• Organisms that lay eggs
• after the eggs are fertilized internally, it would complete its
development outside the mother’s body.
3. Internal Fertilization

b) Ovoviviparity
• When the fertilized eggs are retained within the
female’s reproductive tract and then she gives live
birth.
3. Internal Fertilization

c) Viviparity
• The eggs are developed internally and receive
nourishment directly from the mother’s blood through
placenta rather than from the yolk.
Human
External Structures

• Penis: external male sex organ

• Scrotum: sac of skin and muscle
containing testicles
Internal Structures
• Testicles: organ where sperm is created
• Epididymis: organ where sperm matures
• Vas Deferens: tubes connecting epididymis
to ejaculatory ducts
• Ejaculatory duct: About two centimeters in
length and is created when the seminal
vesicle's duct merges with the vas deferens.
Internal Structures
• Seminal Vesicle: make semen (seminal
fluid)
• Prostate gland: exocrine gland of male
reproductive system
• Cowper’s gland or Bulbourethral gland:
secretes lubricating fluid
• Urethra: tube that connects bladder to
outside of body
 Testes Sperms are produced here

Epididymis Sperm mature here

Vas deferens
Components of the ejaculatory
fluid are added in these location
Ejaculatory duct

Urethra Ejaculation
▪ Ovaries: egg-producing organs
▪ Fimbriae: direct the ova from the ovaries to
the fallopian tubes
▪ Fallopian Tubes: channels for oocyte
transport and fertilization
▪ Uterus: nourish the developing fetus prior
to birth
▪ Cervix: lower, narrow portion of uterus
▪ Vagina: tract from uterus to exterior
▪ Hymen: mucous membrane around vaginal
opening
▪ The menstrual cycle prepares
the females body for
pregnancy.
▪ If not pregnant, female
hormones send a signal to
uterus to shed its lining.
▪ This becomes period.
• Ovulation is a phase in the menstrual
cycle when your ovary releases an egg
(ovum). Once an egg leaves your ovary, it
travels down your fallopian tube where it
waits to be fertilized by sperm. On
average, it happens on day 14 of a 28-day
menstrual cycle.

• Following ovulation, the egg is capable of

fertilization for only 12 to 24 hours.

• Sperm that's been ejaculated into a

woman can live inside the uterus for 5
days.
 Studies have shown that a woman's
risk of developing breast cancer is
related to her exposure to hormones
that are produced by her ovaries
(endogenous estrogen and
progesterone).
 The Facts About Breast Cancer
• Second Leading cause of cancer among women
(232,340 new cases a year)
• Every 3 minutes a woman is diagnosed with breast
cancer. 1 in 8 women will be diagnosed in their
lifetime.
• Approximately 2,150 men will be diagnosed each year.
• There are 2.8 million breast cancer survivors today.
• Early detection is the best way to protect yourself
 Performing a Breast Self Examination

❖First, look for changes…Then, feel for changes

❖Step 1: Lie down and raise right arm above head
❖Step 2: Examine area from underarm to lower bra line;
across to breast bone; up to collar bone; back to armpit
❖Step 3: Use pads of three middle fingers of the left hand to
check the right breast, in dime-sized circles
1. Runners or stolons
• are long, slender stems that grow along the surface of the soil.
Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa)

Taro (Colocasia esculenta)

Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)

2. Suckers
• are roots that could give rise to
new plants.
Banana (Genus: Musa) Common Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris)
3. Rhizomes
• are underground horizontal
stems that are modified for
storage and reproduction.
Each node for a rhizome
can give rise to a new plant.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)

Grass Sedges
4. Corms, bulbs and tubers are vertical underground stems
which could also be propagated asexually. These are
specialized for storage of food and reproduction. They could be
planted right away and become new plants.
Corm

Corm

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) Water Chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis)

Bulb

Onion (Allium cepa) Garlic (Allium sativum)

Tuber Potato (Solanum tuberosum)

Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

Yam (Dioscorea alata)

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)

5. Tissue culture (protoplast fusion)
• is an asexual means of
reproduction where individual
cells can be isolated from tissues
with enzymes that can break
down the cell walls, leaving just
the protoplast. Plant cells have
greater plasticity than animal
cells which made them ideal for
protoplast fusion.
Vegetative Parts of a Flower
1. Petals:
This is a bright-colored part
that attracts bees, insects,
and birds. The color of petals
varies from plant to plant;
some are bright while some
are pale colored. Thus, petals
help us to differentiate one
flower from another.
Vegetative Parts of a Flower
2. Sepals:
The green-colored part
beneath the petals to protect
rising buds. Some flowers
have fused petals-sepals
while a few have separated
petals-sepals.
Reproductive Parts of a Flower
1. Stamen: This is the male
reproductive organ and is also
known as Androecium. It consists of
two parts namely:
• The anther is a yellowish, sac-like
structure, involved in producing
and storing the pollens.
• The filament is a slender, threadlike
object, which functions by
supporting the anther.
Reproductive Parts of a Flower
2. Pistil: This is the innermost part and the
female reproductive organ of a flower
which comprises three parts:
• Stigma: It is the topmost part or
receptive tip of carpels in the
gynoecium of a flower.
• Style: It is the long tube-like slender
stalk that connects the stigma and the
ovary.
• Ovary: It is the ductless reproductive
gland that holds a lot of ovules. It is
the part of the plant where the seed
formation takes place.
Pollination
is the act of transferring pollen
grains from the male anther of a
flower to the female stigma.
Plants can be:
• Self-pollinating - the plant can
fertilize itself; or,
• Cross-pollinating - the plant
needs a vector (a pollinator or
the wind) to get the pollen to
another flower of the same
species.
 Lesson 2:
Stages of Development in Plants
and Animals
1. Germination Stage
• is a stage where the plant grows
from a seed.
• in the right environment, seeds
start to produce the familiar parts
including roots, stems, and leaves.
2. Vegetative Stage
• occurs after the plant has sprouted
and produced its first green tendrils.
• meristems give rise to leaves and
stem.
• This is important because sufficient
leaf surface area is needed to capture
sunlight and continue photosynthesis.
3. Reproductive Stage
• this stage consists of the period from the time that the plant
starts to form inflorescence or flower primordia until flowering,
pollination and fertilization.
4. Ripening Stage
• the composite of the
processes that occur from
the latter stages of
senescence and that results
in characteristic aesthetic
and/or food quality, as
evidenced by changes in
composition, color, texture
or other sensory attributes.
5. Senescence
• final stage of development in
plants
• physical and chemical
changes occur leading to the
death of the whole plant.
Types of Senescence
1. Gametogenesis
• This is the stage of
development by which
diploid or haploid precursor
cells undergo cell division
and differentiation to form
mature haploid gametes.
2. Fertilization
• The stage in which the sperm and egg unite in one of the
fallopian tubes to form a zygote.
3. Cleavage
• The zygote undergoes a series of cell division without an increase
in its size. This ends with the formation of a blastula called a
blastocyst, which varies in structure among vertebrates.
4. Gastrulation
• Stage of development involving morphogenetic movements of the
cells to produce a gastrula with distinct germ cell layers; in
vertebrates, this will result in three layers.
5. Organogenesis
• Cells from the three primary layers interact to form the organs of
the body through a process called organogenesis. This is initiated
with the formation of the notochord and the hollow dorsal nerve
chord ready to differentiate into specific organ systems.
6. Differentiation and Growth
• Stage of development
characterized by an increase in
size of an individual.
 Lesson 3:
Plant Nutrition vs Animal
Nutrition
Refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance
of an organism.
• The carbon and oxygen which they need
in order to build up their bodies
ultimately comes from this carbon
dioxide
• Hydrogen is used by plants which
combine it with carbon during the
photosynthesis process.
• Nitrogen is an essential macronutrient
for plant function and is a key
component of amino acids, which form
the building blocks of plant proteins and
enzymes.
 1. Parasitic Plant
Plants which do not have chlorophyll and cannot prepare their
own food. They get their food from other plants

Rafflesia arnoldii Tetrastigma vines

2. Insectivorous Plant
Insectivorous plants (often called carnivorous) carry out photosynthesis and
colonise environments which lack nitrogen and minerals, and where competition
with other plants is minimal.

Venus Fly Trap (Dionaea muscipula) Picher Plant (Genus: Nepenthes)

3. Saprotrophs (bacterial flora)
• Plants do not have chlorophyll and cannot prepare their own
food. They get their food from dead and decaying organic
matter.
• saprophytes (sapro- 'rotten material' + -phyte 'plant')

Venus Fly Trap (Dionaea muscipula) Picher Plant (Genus: Nepenthes)

• For a long time, scientists considered fungi to be members of the
plant kingdom because they have obvious similarities with
plants. Both fungi and plants are immobile, have cell walls, and
grow in soil.
• Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as
yeasts, molds and mushrooms. These organisms are classified
under kingdom fungi. The organisms found in Kingdom fungi contain
a cell wall and are omnipresent. They are classified as heterotrophs
among the living organisms.
 4. Symbiosis
• Plants that develops symbiotic relationship with each other.
• Some plants live together and share shelter and nutrients.

Venus Fly Trap (Dionaea muscipula) Picher Plant (Genus: Nepenthes)

Lichen Mushroom Algae
Algae
• Are large cellular components abundantly obtained naturally and
are responsible for varieties of essential functions for the growth
and survival of living organisms.
• There are four important classes of biological macromolecule:
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Algae
1. Carbohydrates
• serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body.
• Monomer: Monosaccharides

Algae
2. Proteins
• can also be used as an
energy source but the body
mainly uses these as
building materials for cell
structures and as enzymes,
hormones, parts of
muscles, and bones.

Algae
3. Lipids (Fats)
• are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and
other cellular structures;
• also used to insulate nervous tissue, and also serve as an
energy source.
• Fats also contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are
important for good health.
• Monomer: Fatty Acids and Glycerol

Algae
• Are organic molecules that are essential to an organism in
small quantities for proper metabolic function.
• Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized in the organism
in sufficient quantities for survival, and therefore must be
obtained through the diet.
• In the context of nutrition, it is a chemical element
required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform
functions necessary for life.
• Those essential for health include calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
sodium, chloride, magnesium, iron, zinc, iodine, chromium, copper,
fluoride, molybdenum, manganese, and selenium.