4.

1 Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice, Data, Video

Communications satellites are used to carry telephone, video, and data

signals, and can use both analog and digital modulation techniques.

Modulation
Modification of a carrier’s parameters (amplitude, frequency, phase, or a
combination of them) in dependence on the symbol to be sent.
Multiplexing
Task of multiplexing is to assign space, time, frequency, and code to each
communication channel with a minimum of interference and a maximum of
medium utilization Communication channel refers to an association of sender(s)
and receiver(s) that want to exchange data One of several constellations of a
carrier’s parameters defined by the used modulation scheme.

4.1.1 Voice, Data, Video

The modulation and multiplexing techniques that were used at this time
were analog, adapted from the technology developed for The change to digital
voice signals made it easier for long-distance.

Figure 4.1 Modulation and Multiplexing: Voice/Data/Video

 Communication carriers to mix digital data and telephone Fiber -optic
Cable Transmission Standards System Bit rate (Mbps) 64 - kbps Voice channel
capacity Stuffing bits and words are added to the satellite data stream as n eeded
to fill empty bit and word spaces.

Primarily for video provided that a satellite link's overall carrier-to-noise

but in to older receiving equipment at System and Satellite Specification Ku -
band satellite parameters.

4.1.2 Modulation And Multiplexing

In analog television (TV) transmission by satellite, the baseband video

signal and one or two audio subcarriers constitute a composite video signal.

Digital modulation is obviously the modulation of choice for transmitting

digital data are digitized analog signals may conveniently share a channel with
digital data, allowing a link to carry a varying mix of voice and data traffic.

Digital signals from different channels are interleaved for transmission

through time division multiplexing TDM carry any type of traffic — the bent
pipe transponder that can carry voice, video, or data as the marketplace
demands.

Hybrid multiple access schemes can use time division multiplexing of

baseband channels which are then modulate.

4.2 Analog – digital transmission system

4.2.1 Analog vs. Digital Transmission

Compare at two levels:

1. Data—continuous (audio) vs. discrete (text)

2. Signaling—continuously varying electromagnetic wave vs. sequence of
voltage pulses.

Also Transmission—transmit without regard to signal content vs. being

concerned with signal content. Difference in how attenuation is handled, but not
focus on this. Seeing a shift towards digital transmission despite large analog
base. Why?
 Figure 4.2 basic communication systems

• Improving digital technology

• Data integrity. Repeaters take out cumulative problems in transmission.
Can thus transmit longer distances.
• Easier to multiplex large channel capacities with digital
• Easy to apply encryption to digital data
• Better integration if all signals are in one form. Can integrate voice, video
and digital data.

4.2.2 Digital Data/Analog Signals

Must convert digital data to analog signal such device is a modem to

translate between bit-serial and modulated carrier signals?

To send digital data using analog technology, the sender generates a

carrier signal at some continuous tone (e.g. 1 -2 kHz in phone circuits) that looks
like a sine wave. The following techniques are used to encode digital data into
analog signals.

Figure 4.3 Digital /Analog Transmitter & receiver

Resulting bandwidth is centered on the carrier frequency.

• Amplitude-shift modulation (keying): vary the amplitude (e.g. voltage) of

the signal. Used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
• Frequency-shift modulation: two (or more tones) are used, which are near
the carrier frequency. Used in a full-duplex modem (signals in both
directions).
• Phase-shift modulation: systematically shift the carrier wave at uniformly
spaced intervals.

For instance, the wave could be shifted by 45, 135, 225, 315 degree at each
timing mark. In this case, each timing interval carries 2 bits of information.

Why not shift by 0, 90, 180, 270? Shifting zero degrees means no shift, and
an extended set of no shifts leads to clock synchronization difficulties.

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM): Divide the frequency

spectrum into smaller subchannels, giving each user exclusive use of a
subchannel (e.g., radio and TV). One problem with FDM is that a user is given
all of the frequency to use, and if the user has no data to send, bandwidth is
wasted — it cannot be used by another user.

Time division multiplexing (TDM): Use time slicing to give each user
the full bandwidth, but for only a fraction of a second at a time (analogous to
time sharing in operating systems). Again, if the user doesn’t have data to sent
during his time slice, the bandwidth is not used (e.g., wasted).

Statistical multiplexing: Allocate bandwidth to arriving packets on

demand. This leads to the most efficient use of channel bandwidth because it
only carries useful data. That is, channel bandwidth is allocated to packets that
are waiting for transmission, and a user generating no packets doesn’t use any of
the channel resources.

4.3. Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB)

o Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) has become the synonym for digital
television and for data broadcasting world-wide.

o DVB services have recently been introduced in Europe, in North- and

o South America, in Asia, Africa and Australia.
 o This article aims at describing what DVB is all about and at introducing
some of the technical background of a technology that makes possible the
broadcasting.

Figure 4.4 Digital Video Broadcasting systems

4.4 Multiple Access Techniques

 The transmission from the BS in the downlink can be heard by each and
every mobile user in the cell, and is referred as broadcasting.
Transmission from the mobile users in the uplink to the BS is many-to-
one, and is referred to as multiple access.

 Multiple access schemes to allow many users to share simultaneously a

finite amount of radio spectrum resources.

 Should not result in severe degradation in the performance of the

system as compared to a single user scenario.
 Approaches can be broadly grouped into two categories: narrowband
and wideband.

 Multiple Accessing Techniques : with possible conflict and conflict - free

  Random access
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) : an example is
Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Duplexing

For voice or data communications, must assure two way communication

(duplexing, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously). Duplexing
may be done using frequency or time domain techniques.
 Forward (downlink) band provides traffic from the BS to the mobile
 Reverse (uplink) band provides traffic from the mobile to the BS.

4.4.1 Frequency division duplexing (FDD)

 Provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user, one for downlink
and one for uplink.

 A large interval between these frequency bands must be allowed so that

interference is minimized.

Figure 4.5 Frequency Separation

4.4.2. Time division duplexing (TDD)

 In TDD communications, both directions of transmission use one

contiguous frequency allocation, but two separate time slots to provide
both a forward and reverse link.
  Because transmission from mobile to BS and from BS to mobile alternates
in time, this scheme is also known as “ping pong”.
 As a consequence of the use of the same frequency band, the
communication quality in both directions is the same. This is different
from FDD.

Figure 4.6 Time Slot

4.4.3 FDMA

 In FDMA, each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel.

During the period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency
band.

Figure 4.7 FDMA Channels

 All channels in a cell are available to all the mobiles. Channel assignment
is carried out on a first-come first- served basis.
  The number of channels, given a frequency spectrum BT , depends on the
modulation technique (hence Bw or Bc ) and the guard bands between the
channels 2Bguard .

 These guard bands allow for imperfect filters and oscillators and can be
used to minimize adjacent channel interference.
 FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

Figure 4.8 FDMA/FDD/TDD

Nonlinear effects in FDMA

 In a FD MA system, many channels share t he same antenna at the BS. The

power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near
saturation are non linear.
 The nonlinear ties generate inter-modulation frequencies.
 Undesirable harmonics generated outside the mobile radio band cause
interference to adjacent services.
 Undesirable harmonics present inside the band ca use interference to other
users in the mobile system.
4.4.4 TDMA

 TDMA systems divide the channel time into frames. Each frame is further
partitioned into time slots. In each slot only one user is allowed to either
transmit or receive.

 Unlike FDMA, only digital data and digital modulation must be used.

 Each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be

thought of as a particular time slot of every frame, where N time slots
comprise a frame.

Figure 4.9 TDMA Channels

Features

 Multiple channels per carrier or RF channels.

 Burst transmission since channels are used on a timesharing basis.

o Transmitter can be turned off during idle periods.

 Narrow or wide bandwidth – depends on factors such as modulation

scheme, number of voice channels per carrier channel.

 High ISI – Higher transmission symbol rate, hence resulting in high ISI.
o Adaptive equalizer required.
 Figure 3.10 TDMA Channels time slot

 A guard time between the two time slots must be allowed in order to avoid
o interference, especially in the uplink direction.  mobiles
All synchronize with BS to minimize interference. should

 Efficient power utilization : FDMA systems require a 3- to 6-dB power back

o off in order to compensate for inter-modulation effects.

 Efficient handoff : TDMA systems can take advantage of the fact that the
transmitter is switched off during idle time slots to improve the handoff
procedure. An enhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile
assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening to
o neighboring base station during the idle slot of the TDMA frame.

 Efficiency of TDMA

 Efficiency of TDMA is a measure of the percentage of bits per frame whi ch

contain transmitted data. The transmitted data include source and channel
coding bits.


 bOH includes all overhead bits such as preamble, guard bits, etc.
4.4.5 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

 Spreading signal (code) consists of chips

 Has Chip period and and hence, chip rate

 Spreading signal use a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (a pseudo-

random sequence)

 PN sequence is called a codeword

 Each user has its own cordword

 Codewords are orthogonal. (low autocorrelation)

 Chip rate is order of magnitude larger than the symbol rate.

 The receiver correlator distinguishes the senders signal by examining the

wideband signal with the same time-synchronized spreading code

 The sent signal is recovered by despreading process at the receiver.

CDMA Advantages:

 Low power spectral density.

 Signal is spread over a larger frequency band

 Other systems suffer less from the transmitter

 Interference limited operation

 All frequency spectrum is used

 Privacy

 The codeword is known only between the sender and receiver.

Hence other users can not decode the messages that are in
transit

 Reduction of multipath affects by using a larger spectrum

CDMA data

Figure 4.11 CDMA Channels transmission

DSSS Transmitter:

Figure 4.12 CDMA Transmitter

 DSSS Receiver

Figure 4.13 CDMA Receiver

 FDMA/CDMA

 Available wideband spectrum is frequency divided into number

narrowband radio channels. CDMA is employed inside each channel.

 DS/FHMA

 The signals are spread using spreading codes (direct sequence

signals
 are obtained), but these signal are not
transmitted over a constant
 carrier frequency; they are transmitted over a frequency
hopping carrier frequency.

 Time Division CDMA (TCDMA)

 Each cell is using a different spreading code (CDMA employed

between cells) that is conveyed to the mobiles in its range.

 Inside each cell (inside a CDMA channel), TDMA is employed to

multiplex multiple users.
  Time Division Frequency Hopping

 At each time slot, the user is hopped to a new frequency according to

a pseudo-random hopping sequence.

 Employed in severe co-interference and multi-path environments.

Bluetooth and GSM are using this technique

 A large number of independently steered high-gain beams can be formed

without any resulting degradation in SNR ratio.

 Beams can be assigned to individual users, thereby assuring that all links
operate with maximum gain.

 Adaptive beam forming can be easily implemented to improve the system

capacity by suppressing co channel interference.

Advantage of CDMA

 It is recognized that CDMA’s capacity gains over TDMA

 FDMA are entirely due to Its tighter, dynamic control over the use of the
power domain.

 Choosing a new non-orthogonal PN sequence a CDMA system does not

encounter the difficulties of choosing a spare carrier frequency or time slot to
carry a Traffic Channel

 Ensure that interference will not be too great if it begins to transmit -that
there is still enough space left in the power domain.

Disadvantages of CDMA

 Satellite transponders are channelized too narrowly for roadband CDMA,

which is the most attractive form of CDMA.

 Power control cannot be as tight as it is in a terrestrial system because

of long round-trip delay.

4.5. Channel allocation schemes

In radio resource management for wireless and cellular network, channel

allocation schemes are required to allocate bandwidth and communication
channels to base stations, access points and terminal equipment.