Module 1: INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY

7. Plant Geography
BOTANY ➢ dealing with the distribution of plants on
➢ branch of biology which deals with the the earth’s surface and overlapping both
structure, physiology, reproduction, evolution, ecology and taxonomy.
diseases, economic uses and other feature of P
LANTS 8. Plant Genetics
➢ the study of the inheritance and breeding of
PLANTS plants.
➢ are organisms which produce spores and
which have cellulose, a complex carbohydrate, 9. Plant Cytology
as a component of their cellular coverings. ➢ the study of the structure and physiology
of individual cells, especially in relation to
BRANCHES OF BOTANY genetics, biochemistry and taxonomy.
1. Plant Morphology
2. Plant Anatomy HISTORY OF BOTANY
3. Plant Taxonomy ❑ 408 to 400 million years ago
4. Plant Pathology ➢ The first plant to live on land appear
5. Plant Physiology around the margin of seas.
6. Plant Ecology
7. Plant Geography ❑ 360 to 330 million years ago
8. Plant Genetics ➢ Ferns are the dominant form of
9. Plant Cytology vegetation.

1. Plant Morphology ❑ 360 to 340 million years ago

➢ the study of plant structure. ➢ Plants evolve into large trees. For the
first time, tropical forests cover lowlands
2. Plant Anatomy
➢ a phase of morphology dealing with the ❑ 300 to 290 million years ago
minute internal structure of plants, with ➢ Wide variety of plant and animals are
special reference to their tissues. buried under marine sediments and
preserved as fossils
3. Plant Taxonomy
➢ the study of plant classification, and the ❑ 68 million years ago
principles of plant classification and ➢ Land plants suffer from a large extinction
identification
❑ 65 million years ago
4. Plant Pathology ➢ An asteroid or comet impacts Earth in
➢ the study of the causes, control and Mexico’s Northern Yucatan Peninsula,
other features of plant diseases creating a basin 200 km in diameter. Plant
growth probably ceases as dust from the
5. Plant Physiology impact blocks the sunlight and atmospheric
➢ the study of the chemical and physical changes cause acid rain.
processes and behavior of plants. ❑ 40 to 34 million years ago
➢ Grasses evolve the ability to spread by
6. Plant Ecology root and tropical forests give way to
➢ the study of plants in relation to their temperate grass lands
environment.

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 ❑ 3.50 million years ago ➢ About 300 B.C., the Greek Theophrastus
➢ The Panamanian land bridge between collected information about plants into books
North and South America is exposed when including the “History of Plants” and “Causes of
sea levels drop. The land bridge allows Plants”.
plants and animals to migrate between the
formerly isolated continents. ❑ 18th century A.D.
➢ Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century A.D.
❑ 200,000 to 300,000 years ago referred to Theophrastus as the “Father of
➢ North American ice sheets extend all the Botany”
way to the Midwestern United States. Pine
forests develop where the ice has been and ❑ 2nd century A.D.
proliferate immediately south of the ice ➢ Dioscorides wrote the “Materia Medica”,
sheets in North America. which contained illustrations of plants, just as
many modern field guides of wild plants (and
➢ Shen Nung, born 2737 B.C., founder of other organisms) do today
Chinese agriculture, wrote books on drugs
and medicine from plants ➢ Botany or biology did not progress much
during the “dark ages” until the 16th and 17th
❑ 2500 B.C century.
➢ Wheat and barley are cultivated at
Mohenjo-Daro on the Indus River. The city’s ❑ 1632-1723
inhabitants also eat millet, melons and ➢ Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to
other fruits and vegetables adapt lenses to study living organisms. He
discovered microorganisms.
❑ 1600 B.C.
➢ Spanish explorers bring potatoes to ❑ 1665
Europe from the plant’s native soils of ➢ Robert Hooke discovered that plant tissues
South America in about 1600. Because they were composed of cells (in fact he coined the
are easy to grow in regions where word cell).
agriculture is otherwise difficult, the edible
tuber quickly becomes a food staple around ❑ 1735
the world ➢ Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus
introduces a system of naming organisms,
❑ 600 B.C. called the binomial system of nomenclature.
➢ According to legend, King Similar organisms are grouped together and
Nebuchadnezzar II begins building the each organism is given a two-word name
Hanging Gardens of Babylon. One of the consisting of genus and species. He was known
seven wonders of the world, the gardens as the “Father of Taxonomy”.
located on terraces in Nebuchadnezzar II
palace complex are by pumps from the river ❑ 1779
Euphrates. ➢ In a first step in the understanding of
❑ 350 B.C. photosynthesis, Dutch physiologist Jan
➢ Greek philosopher Aristotle establishes a Ingenhousz discovers that plants release
taxonomy that recognizes two Kingdoms of oxygen when exposed to sunlight.
living forms, Plantae an Animalia. The concept
of two kingdoms remains intact for centuries. ❑ 1839
➢ German botanist Matthias Schledein and
❑ 300 B.C German zoologist Theodor Schwann, working

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together, recognize the fundamental similarities first plant to e successfully cultivated from seed
between plant and animal cells and propose in space.
that all living things are made up of cell.
Module 2: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE
❑ 1858 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
➢ German pathologist Rudolf Virchow shows
that cells are derived from pre-existing cells. 1. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
This discovery provides important evidence of a
continuity between past and present living SCIENTIFIC METHOD
things. ➢ is a process for experimentation that is used
to explore observations and answer questions
❑ 1865
➢ Using varieties of garden peas, Austrian ➢ it is a method or procedure that has
botanist Gregor Mendel works out the basic characterized natural science since the 17th
principles of genetics. His theory of dominant century, consisting in systematic observation,
and recessive genes is published in an obscure measurement and experiment and the
journal. formulation, testing and modification of
hypothesis.
❑ 1899
➢ Dutch botanist Hugo De Vries proposes that STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD
units he calls pangene are the carriers of 1. Observation. This preliminary observation
hereditary traits. He suggests that the must be precise and accurate as it is the
spontaneous appearance of new traits he has basis of the problem.
observed in otherwise predictable of evening 2. Formulation of the Problem. Scientific
primroses are the result of changes, or problems should be definite and limited
mutations in pangenes. 3. Formulation of Hypothesis. Hypothesis is a
scientific guess to the problem. It is based
❑ 1906 on previous relevant researches conducted.
➢ Working with plant chlorophylls, Italian- It is an intelligent inference.
Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett discovers 4. Experimentation. This step roves whether
chromatography, a technique for the chemical the hypothesis is true or false. The
separation of mixtures and substances observations and data are gathered and
analyzed to come up with generalizations.
❑ 1973 5. Formulation of Conclusion/ Generalization.
➢ Biochemists Herbert Boyer and Stanley The conclusion or generalization answers
Cohen develop genetic engineering by inserting the problem and states whether the
DNA from one bacteria into another hypothesis is correct or incorrect.
❑ 1994 1. THE MICROSCOPE
➢ The first GMO produce created through
genetic engineering—a GMO tomato— THE MICROSCOPE
becomes available for sale after studies ➢ A microscope is a precise and delicate
evaluated by federal agencies proved it to be as instrument consisting mainly of a system of
safe as traditionally bred tomatoes. lenses, so assembled as to give a sharp, distinct
and magnified image of the microscopic
❑ December 6, 1996 specimens.
➢ Cosmonauts, aboard the MIR space station
successfully harvest a small wheat crop, the PARTS OF THE MICROSCOPE
1. Magnifying Parts or Optical Parts

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  Objectives
 Ocular or Eyepiece OCULAR OR EYEPIECE
2. Illuminating Parts  Ocular or Eyepiece
 Mirror  Ocular or Eyepiece is found on the top of
 Condenser the microscope inserted into the tubular
 Iris Diaphragm part called body tube.
3. Mechanical Parts  It further magnifies the image formed by
 Base the objectives and it is used in viewing
 Arm the specimen
 Inclination Joint
 Body Tube ILLUMINATING PARTS
 Revolving Nosepiece  Mirror
 Stage  Mirror is composed of two reflecting
 Clips surfaces, plane and concave, which can
4. Focusing Mechanisms be adjusted to any direction to gather
 Adjustment Knobs and direct light to the specimen.
 Plane Mirror
MAGNIFYING PARTS OR OPTICAL PARTS  is used when the source of light is
➢ Magnifying parts or optical parts are artificial
composed of ground and polished lenses for the  Concave Mirror
enlargement of the image and objects under  is used when the source of light is
study. natural
➢ Objectives
 Low Power Objectives (LPO)  Condenser
 High Power Objectives (HPO)  found beneath the stage and
 Oil Immersion Objectives (OIO) concentrates light on the object under
➢ Ocular or Eyepiece study

OBJECTIVES  Iris Diaphragm

 Low Power Objectives (LPO)  situated below the condenser and
 is the shorter objective usually marked provided with a small leer which can be
4x to 10x, which is the magnifying moved to regulate the amount of light.
power of the lens MECHANICAL PARTS
 The working distance between the  Mechanical Parts
cover glass and the objective lens is 5  Mechanical parts of the microscope
mm . consist of precise part of metal to
 This lens provide the general view of support and adjust the optical parts.
the specimen.
 Base
 High Power Objective (HPO)  heavy U,V or Y shaped foot that make
 is usually marked 40x to 60x and the microscope stand stable on any flat
 working distance of 0.46mm. surface
 It gives a more detailed vie than the
LPO  Pillar
 short piece of metal supporting the rest
 Oil Immersion Objective (OIO) of the microscope
 is found by marked 97x to 100x
 working distance of 0.13 mm.  Arm or Handle

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  a curved metal for holding the  PLANTS
microscope  green organisms which can
photosynthesize food
 Inclination Joint  ANIMALS
 a joint between the arm and the pillar  organisms which induce foods
that allows possible tilting of the upper
part of the microscope Differences that Distinguish most Plants from
Animals
 Body Tube
 a tubular part attached to the body and  PLANTS
bears the upper arm.  able to manufacture their own food
from raw materials from the air and soil
 Revolving or Rotating Nosepiece  have green pigments, called chlorophylls
 the structure that facilitates the  contains cellulose in their structural
changing of objectives in focus. framework
 Stationary
 Dust Shield  Unlimited scheme of growth
 a concave disc which protects the
objective from dust  ANIMALS
 Lacks the ability to manufacture food
 Stage and depend upon plants for their food
 is a platform which central aperture for  Lacks chlorophyll
the passage of reflected light from the  Substance lacking in few species of
mirror and where slides to be observed animals
are placed.  Capable of locomotion
 Limited scheme of growth
 Clips
 are gears for holding the slides securely 2. THE CELL
in place
 THE CELL
FOCUSING MECHANISMS  the basic structural, functional, and
 Coarse Adjustment Knob biological unit of all known
 larger knob attached on the arm to raise  smallest unit of life
or lower the body tube when the low  “building blocks of life”
power objective is in focus.
 CYTOLOGY
 Fine Adjustment Knob  the study of cell structure and
 is the smaller knob also attached to the physiology
arm used for delicate focusing of the
specimen under the high power object CELLULAR LEVEL
and oil immersion objectives. Atoms -> Molecules -> Macromolecule ->
Organelle -> Cell
Module 3: THE LIVING STATE: PLANTS
AND ANIMALS ORGANISMAL LEVEL
Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organisms
1. PLANTS AND ANIMALS
 CELL THEORY
PLANTS vs ANIMALS

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  states that the bodies of all plants and  Pectin
animals are composed of structural  Plasmodesmata
units called cells, that plants and  Cell Membrane
animals develop as a result of the
formation of new cells and that the  CELL WALL
activities of an organism are a  Is a flexible outer barrier made of
summation of the activities of its cellulose fibrils that surround plant cells
component cells.  Gives support and form to the cell and
to the plant as a whole and protects the
1. All living organisms are made of cells. protoplasm within
2. Cells are the basic unit of life. MIDDLE LAMELLA
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.  an intercellular layer that is composed
4. Hereditary information is passed from chiefly of sticky, gelatinous
cells. carbohydrates known as “pectic
5. All cells have the basic chemical substance or pectin” which is situated
composition. between adjacent cells.
6. Energy flow occurs within cells. PECTIN
 a polysaccharide that acts as a
 ORGANISMAL THEORY cementing material in the cell walls of
 This maintains that an organism is to be all plant tissues.
regarded not simply as an aggregation CELLULOSE
of individual cells, but as a functional  a carbohydrate which is strong, tough
unit, subdivided for physiological and and elastic and which is the most
structural convenience into small masses abundant constituent of the cell wall of
of protoplasm which, with their most plants and is situated inside the
surrounding walls or membranes are middle lamella.
called cells. PLASMODESMATA
 small tubes that connect plant cells to
TYPES OF ORGANISMS each other, establishing living bridges
 Unicellular Organisms between cells. This facilitates the
 Unicellular Organisms transfer of materials from one cell to
another.
 UNICELLULAR CELL MEMBRANE
 an organism which consists of a single  outer covering, protective layer around
cell. all cells. For cells with cell wall, the cell
 COLONIES membrane is inside the cell wall. it
 a number of similar unicellular allows food, oxygen and water into the
organisms grouped together without any cell and waste products out of the cell
division
 MULTICELLULAR  Protoplasm
 composed of many cells which vary in  Plasma Membrane
structure and function
PROTOPLASM
2. CELL STRUCTURE  Is the structurally complex, constant
changing aggregation of materials
 Cell Wall which fills cells, and is classically known
 Middle Lamella as the “living substance.”
 Cellulose PLASMA MEMBRANE

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  less frequently called “plasma lemma”.  Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 t is the membrane that completely  Smooth ER
covers the surface of the protoplasm.  Rough ER
 Because it is the outermost surface of
the protoplast, it must be impermeable ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
to harmful materials  It is a series o folded membranes that
move materials (protein) around in a
 Nucleus cell.
 Nuclear Membrane  It is like a conveyor belt.
 Nucleolus SMOOTH ER
 ribosomes are not attached to ER. It
NUCLEUS synthesizes and metabolizes lipids.
 It directs all cell activities. ROUGH ER
 It also contains instructions for everything  ribosomes are attached to ER. It
the cell does. synthesizes proteins
 These instructions are found on a
hereditary material called “DNA  Vacuoles
(deoxyribonucleic acid).  Tonoplast
 The nucleus is usually the largest organelle
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE VACUOLES
 also called the nuclear envelope. It  It is a membranous sacs filled with
separates the nucleus from the rest of the water that serve a variety of functions.
cells.  It serves as a storage of food, water,
NUCLEOLUS oil, pigments, toxins and waste.
 also known as “little nucleus.”  It serves as the storehouse of the cell .
 It is found in the nucleus and is composed  Young plant cells often contain many
of protein and RNA and associated with the small vacuoles, but as the cells mature,
synthesis of ribosomes and ribosomal RNA. these unite to form a large central
CHROMOSOMES vacuole.
 carries genetic information TONOPLAST
 the membrane surrounding the plant
 Cytoplasm cell vacuole.
 Organelles
 Cytosol  Mitochondria
 Golgi Apparatus
CYTOPLASM
 This is a gelatin like content within the MITOCHONDRIA
plasma membrane but outside the  It is termed as the “powerhouse of the
nucleus cell,” which functions in energy
ORGANELLES production.
 the small membrane-bound  Requires oxygen and gives off carbon
components of the cell that allows it to dioxide, called cellular respiration.
function.
CYTOSOL GOLGI APPARATUS
 the aqueous part of the cytoplasm  It is a stack of flattened membrane
outside of the other membrane bound bound sacs resembling a stack of dinner
organelles. plates.

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  It is responsible for the packaging of the ANIMAL CELLS
proteins from the ER.  Smaller
 It directs proteins to the proper cite.  No cell wall
 Nucleus on center
 Plastids  Many vacuoles
 Chloroplast  Cannot synthesis nutrients
 Chromoplast  No plasmodesmata
 Leucoplast
 Amyloplast PLANT CELLS
 Elaioplast  Larger
 Cell wall
PLASTIDS  Nucleus on the side
 A large organelles that are associated  No vacuole
with pigments and other storage  Synthesizes nutrients
products.  Has plasmodesmata
 These structures are peculiar to plants
and contain photosynthetic pigments Module 4: CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
CHLOROPLAST
 plastids with green pigments LESSON OUTLINE
CHROMOPLAST  Cell Division
 plastids with yellow or red pigments  Cell Cycle
LEUCOPLAST  Stages of Cell Cycle
 colorless plastid  Mitosis
AMYLOPLAST  Phases of Mitosis
 plastids that store starch  Meiosis
ELAIOPLAST  Phases of Meiosis
 plastids that store oil CELL
 Flagella and Cilia
 Centrosomes DIVISION
 the process by which a single cell
FLAGELLA AND CILIA divides in order to make or form new
 Both are threadlike cytoplasmic cells
extensions which are the locomotor  functions in reproduction, growth and
organelles of swimming spores or sex repair
cells. CELL CYCLE
 Both are threadlike cytoplasmic  life cycle of the cell
extensions which are the locomotor  series of events that take place in a cell
organelles of swimming spores or sex leading to replication of its DNA and
cells. division of cytoplasm and organelles to
make two (2) daughter cells.
CENTROSOMES
 These are common in animal cells, but - To divide, a cell must complete several
are rare in plants. They are involved in important tasks: it must grow, copy its
the formation of cilia and flagella. genetic material (DNA), and physically
split into two daughter cells.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL
CELLS AND PLANT CELLS? STAGES OF CELL CYCLE

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 M Phase
 Mitotic Phase
• cell divides its copied
1. Interphase DNA and cytoplasm to
 G1 Phase make two new cells.
 S Phase • M phase involves two
 G2 Phase distinct division-related
2. Mitotic (M) Phase processes: mitosis and cytokinesis

 Mitosis
 Cytokinesis
 MITOSIS
3. Cell Cycle Exit and G0
 nuclear division
 the process by which the nucleus
INTERPHASE
divides to produce two new nuclei.
 also called “metabolic phase” or
 results in two daughter cells (diploid)
“resting phase”
that are genetically identical to each
 the period when the cell is getting ready
to divide and start the cell cycle.
 takes place between one mitotic phase
and the next M

STAGES OF INTERPHASE
1. G1 Phase (First Gap Phase)
 cell grows physically larger, copies other and to the parental cell from
organelles, and makes the molecular which they came.
building blocks it will need in later  occurs in somatic cells
steps.  somatic cells also known as body cells
2. S Phase (Synthesis Phase)
 cell synthesizes a complete copy of the PHASES IN MITOSIS
DNA in its nucleus. P- Prophase
3. G2 Phase (Second Gap Phase) M- Metaphase
 cell grows more, makes proteins and A- Anaphase
organelles, and begins to reorganize its T- Telophase
contents in preparation for mitosis
 PROPHASE
 chromosomes condensed and become
visible.

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 Spindle fibers emerge from the  CYTOKENESIS
centrosomes  division of the cytoplasm
 Nuclear envelopes breaks down.  Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for
around one to two hours.
 METAPHASE
 The chromosomes are lined up in a
flattened disk or ring at the equator of the
cell.
 Each sister chromatid is attached to a
spindle fiber originating from opposite
poles.

 ANAPHASE
 The centromeres split  MEIOSIS
into two.  series of two nuclear divisions producing
 Sister chromatids (now four daughter cells with different genetic
known as materials.
chromosomes) are  takes place usually in germ cells (sex cells,
pulled towards the opposite pole. such as egg and sperm cells).
 Certain spindle fiber begins to elongate the  haploids (one with single set of
cell. chromosome) are produced.

 TELOPHASE PHASES IN MEIOSIS

 Chromosomes  Meiosis I
arrive at the  Prophase I
opposite poles and  Metaphase I
begins to decondense.  Anaphase I
 Nuclear envelope begins to form.  Telophase I

 Meiosis II
 Prophase II
 Metaphase II
 Anaphase II
 Telophase II

 MEIOSIS I
 homologuous chromosomes
(similar but non-identical
chromosome pairs an
organism received from its
two parents) are separated.
 composed of Prophase I,
Metaphase I, Anaphase I and
Telophase I.

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 PROPHASE I
 where chromosomes  DIPLONEMA
begin to condense  The two pairs of sister chromatids begin
 has been subdivided to separate from each other.
into five substages:  The two pairs of sister chromatids
1. Leptonema begin to separate from each other.
2. Zygonema  The area of contact between two
3. Pachynema non-sister chromatids, called
4. Diplonema; and chiasma, become evident.
5. Diakinesis

Substages of Prophase I
 LEPTONEMA  DIAKENESIS
 Replicated  The four chromatids of each
chromosomes have tetrad are even more condensed and
coiled and are already the chiasma often terminalize or
visible. move down the chromatids to the
 The number of ends.
chromosomes present is the same as the  This delays the separation of
number in the diploid cell. homologous chromosomes

 ZYGONEMA  METAPHASE I
 Homologue  tetrads move to the "metaphase plate"
chromosomes begin that is halfway between the two
to pair and twist poles of the cell.
around each other in  The spindle fibers attach to the
a highly specific centromeres of each chromosome.
manner.  Both kinetochores of each sister
 The pairing is called synapsis. chromatid pair are turned toward
 And because the pair consists of four the same pole. As a result, both
chromatids it is referred to as bivalent kinetochores attach to spindle fibers
tetrad. from the same pole.

 PACHYNEMA  ANAPHASE I
 Chromosomes become  The cell begins to lengthen.
much shorter and  The chromosome pair separate
thicker. and move toward opposite poles.
 A form of physical  The separation of the
exchange between homologous chromosome to
homologues takes reach the opposite poles is called
place at specific regions. disjunction.
 The process of physical exchange of a
chromosome region is called crossing-  TELOPHASE I
over.  A haploid set of chromosomes
 Through the mechanism of crossingover, that has two sister chromatids
the parts of the homologous now is at both the poles.
chromosomes are recombined (genetic  the nuclear membrane reappears.
recombination)

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  A cleavage furrow appears and by the  the chromosomes reach opposite
end of this stage and the parent cell poles, and uncoil.
divides into two daughter cells  The nuclear envelopes form.
 This is then followed by
PHASES IN MEIOSIS cytoplasmic division.
 MEIOSIS II  Meiosis is now complete.
 phase where
sister Module 5: TISSUES AND ORGANS
chromatids
separate 1. TISSUES
 composed of
Prophase II,  TISSUES
Metaphase II,  union of cells which have common
Anaphase II and origin, function and similar morphology.
Telophase II  Tissues belong to organs: organ is a
 quite similar to mitosis union of different tissues which have
common function(s) and origin.
 PROPHASE II
 begins with the two daughter cells
produced by the first
meiotic division, the
chromosomes are
condensed.
 The nuclear
envelopes begin to break down

 METAPHASE II TWO GROUPS OF TISSUES

 the spindle is completed and draws the  SIMPLE TISSUE
chromosomes to the metaphase plate.  composed of the same type of cells
 Here, unlike
metaphase I, the two
kinetochores of each
centromere bind to
spindle fibers from
opposite poles (as in mitotic  COMPLEX
metaphase). TISSUE
 are composed
 ANAPHASE II of more than
 sister chromatids of one type of
each chromosome cell
separate and move
towards opposite
poles.
 Once they are separated, the
chromatids are now called unreplicated 2. THREE TYPES OF
chromosomes. PLANT TISSUE

 TELOPHASE II

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 THREE TYPES OF PLANT TISSUE  protects the plant from excessive
 Dermal Tissue evaporation, temperature fluctuations,
 Ground Tissue penetration by microorganisms, and
 Vascular Tissue ingestion by animals.
 main, thickest component of periderm .
 cells that develop outward

DERMAL TISSUE Cork Cambium (Phellogen)

 covers the outer surface of herbaceous  the meristematic cell layer responsible for
plants the development of the periderm.
 protects the soft
tissues of plants Phelloderm
and controls  permanent tissue and is often called as
interactions with the “secondary” cortex
the plants'  It stores food materials
surroundings.  Cells that grow inwards from the
phellogen

Cortex
 composed mostly of large thinwalled
parenchyma cells of the ground tissue
system
 Functions to support plants
 Epidermis GROUND TISSUE
 Periderm  comprises the bulk of the primary plant
 Cortex body
 Parenchyma, collenchyma,
Epidermis and sclerenchyma cells are
 dermal tissue that is usually a single layer of common in the ground tissue.
cells covering the younger parts of a plant.
 It secretes a waxy layer called the cuticle  Parenchyma
that inhibits water loss.  Collenchyma
Periderm  Sclerenchyma
 Protective tissue that replaces the
epidermis after secondary growth is Parenchyma
initiated.  spherical, elongated cells with
 consist cork (phellem), cork cambium a thin primary cell wall.
(phellogen) and phelloderm  It is a main component of
young plant organs.
3 Layers of Periderm  The basic functions of
 Cork (phellem) parenchyma are
 Cork Cambium (phellogen) photosynthesis and storage.
 Phelloderm Collenchyma
Cork (Phellem)
 consists of large dead cells with secondary
walls saturated with suberin

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 living supportive tissue that has elongated  The main functions of xylem
cells and a thick are the transportation of water
primary cell wall and mechanical support.
 Its main function is
the mechanical
support of young
stems and leaves Three Types of Xylem Cells
via turgor.  Tracheary elements (tracheids and vessel
members)
Sclerenchyma  Fibers
 a dead supportive tissue that consists of  Parenchyma cells
long fibers or short, crystal-like cells
 has a thick secondary wall that is rich in Tracheary Elements (TEs)
lignin  cells in the xylem that are highly
 Its main function is a specialized for transporting
support of older water and solutes up the plant.
plant organs, and  Tracheids
also hardening - elongated cells, thinner,
different parts of pointed ends
plants  Vessels
- Wider, cylindrical, joined at perforation
plates

VASCULAR TISSUE
 transports food,
water, hormones
and minerals Fibers
within the plant.  non-living sclerenchyma cells as
 Vascular tissue they lose their protoplast at
includes xylem, maturity.
phloem, parenchyma, and cambium cells.  These cells are found in between
the tracheids and xylem vessels of
 Xylem the xylem tissue
 Phloem
 Parenchyma Cells Parenchyma Cells
 Cambium Cells  the only living cells in the xylem.
Xylem  they have thin cell walls, large vacuoles,
 conduct water and minerals from roots to prominent nucleus, and protoplasts.
leaves.  usually cylindrical and lobed in form

Phloem

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 cells conduct food from leaves to rest of Module 6: THE STRUCTURE OF A PLANT
the plant.
 generally occurs adjacent, or right next to, WHAT ARE PLANTS?
the xylem, with the xylem facing the inner  are organisms which produce spores and
part of the plant and the phloem facing the which have cellulose, a complex
outer part of the plant carbohydrate, as a component of their
cellular coverings.
Four Types of Phloem Cells  It has two organ systems:
 Sieve tube cells  Shoot system
 Companion cells  Root system
 Fibers
 Parenchyma PLANT ORGAN SYSTEM

Sieve Tube Cells Shoot System

 thin plates, which  above ground and
separate includes the organs
neighboring such as leaves, buds,
phloem cells stems, flowers and
 responsible for fruits.
transporting food
and other organic Root System
materials  applied to the entire mass of
underground roots produced by a plant
Companion Cells
 Cells that provides 1. THE ROOT SYSTEM
energy to sieve tubes
 One or more ROOT
companion cells  the part of a plant which
attached to each sieve attaches it to the ground or to a
tube support, typically underground,
 regulate the activity of conveying water and
the adjacent sieve nourishment to the rest of the plant via
element and to take part in loading and numerous branches and fibers.
unloading sugar into the sieve element
FUNCTIONS
Fibers  Anchorage of the plant in the soil
 The only non -living structure in phloem  Absorption of water and dissolved
minerals from the soil
Parenchyma Cells  Conduction of water and minerals
 called transfer cells and border parenchyma upward into the stem.
cells  Conduction of foods manufactured in
 located near the finest branches and leaves downward to the growth and
terminations of sieve tubes in leaf veinlets storage regions of roots.
 function in the transport of foods.  Food Storage
 Reproduction
 Photosynthesis
ORIGIN OF ROOT
 Hypocotyl

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 The part of the seed which becomes the  the first root to appear in a plant. It usually
first root. grows vertically downward.

Secondary Root
 branches produced by the primary root as it
grows. It usually grows in a horizontal
direction.

Root Hairs
 Outward extensions of epidermal cells
which extend between soil particles to
THREE collect water and solutes (minerals).
TYPES OF  These rarely exceed a few millimeters in
ROOT SYSTEM length or live more than a few days or
weeks.
Tap Root System
 a single dominant root from which smaller, Root Cap
secondary roots extends. This  thimble-shaped mass of moderate size cells
type of root stretch deep into which forms the apex of the root and
the soil. protects the meristematic cells just above it.
 The outer cells of the root cap are being
Fibrous Root System broken off by their contact with soil
 composed of many small roots, particles.
no single root dominates. This
type of root spread out close to THREE DIFFERENT ZONES OF A ROOT
the surface  Meristematic Zone
 Zone of Elongation
Adventitious Root System  Zone of Differentiation or
 develop on vines after embryonic Maturation
development and help plants
cling to substrates other than
the soil, such as a tree trunks

MERISTEMATIC ZONE
 named after the “apical meristem”.
 In this region, the plant cell undergo
rapid mitotic division, creating
new cells for root growth.
GROSS STRUCTURE OF A ROOT
ZONE OF ELONGATION
 Primary Root  the new cells from the
 Secondary Root meristematic zone, enters the zone of
 Root Hairs elongation and begin to elongate
 Root Cap furnishing the root with added length.
ZONE OF DIFFERENTIATION OR MATURATION
Primary Root

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  contains mature, specialized cells, such as  conducts water and dissolved substances
phloem, xylem, and root chiefly upward through roots, stems, leaves
hairs. and flower stalks.
 In this region, the  It transports water and minerals from the
enlarged cells become roots to the leaves.
differentiated into mature
tissues of the root. Phloem
 conducts chiefly foods, principally
CROSS-SECTION OF A ROOT THROUGH THE downward from leaves into stems and
REGION OF MATURATION roots.
 It transports organic nutrients from the
 Epidermis leaves to the roots.
 Cortex
 Endodermis SPECIALIZED ROOTS
 Pericycle  Aerial Roots
 Xylem  Storage Roots
 Phloem  Contractile Roots
 Parenchyma  Buttress Roots
 Pneumatophores

Epidermis Aerial Roots

 this surface layer of cells absorbs water and  give support to the climbing stems and
dissolved materials from the soil and offer may absorb some moisture
some protection to the inner tissues of a
root

Cortex
 this region comprises of somewhat
irregularly-shaped parenchyma cells with
Storage Roots
many intercellular spaces. The cortex is
 enormously swollen with stored food and
chiefly a water-and food-storage region.
enable plants to survive cold or dry
seasons, or to reproduce vegetatively.
Endodermis
 the innermost cell layer of the cortex.
 This functions as a water dam which
prevents the outward passage of water
from tissues inside the endodermis.

Pericycle Contractile Roots

 this layer of cells lies interior to the  often contract in growth and helps pull
endodermis. the plant deeper into the soil
 By cell division, the pericycle gives rise to
branch roots which force their way out
through the cortex and epidermis.

Xylem

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Buttress Roots FUNCTIONS
 huge roots near base of the trunk; found  Supports the leaves, flowers and fruits
usually in trees that grow in shallow soil.  Stores carbohydrates
 Store minerals
 Transport water and solute between roots
and leaves
 The production of new living tissue in the
meristem
 For asexual reproduction
Pneumatophores
 extend above the surface of the water for TYPES OF STEM
plants that grow in swampy areas. Helps
root exchange gases HERBACEOUS STEMS
 Soft and green
 Little growth in diameter
 Tissues chiefly primary
 Covered by an epidermis
 Buds mostly naked

2. THE SHOOT SYSTEM WOODY STEMS

 Tough and not green
THE SHOOT SYSTEM  Considerable growth in diameter
 Tissues chiefly secondary
 Stem  Covered by corky bark
 Leaves  Buds chiefly covered by scales
 Flowers
 Fruits
STRUCTURE OF A STEM

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
 Node
 Internode
 Leaf Scar
A STEM  Bundle Scar
THE STEM  Terminal Bud
 a collection of integrated  Lateral Bud
tissue arranged as nodes  Lenticel
and internodes. INTERNAL STRUCTURE
 described as a “central  Epidermal Tissue
axis”  Vascular Bundle
 holds and displays the leaves to the sun  Ground Substance
and provides connections for the
transport of materials between roots and EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
leaves.
Epicotyl – part of the seed where the first stem  Node
develops

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  Growth region on stem. Region around INTERNAL STRUCTURE
bud or leaf stem.  Epidermal Tissue
 Internode  Trichomes
 The portion between  Vascular Bundle
the nod  Xylem
 Phloem
 Cambium
 Ground Substance
 Leaf Scar  Cortex
 Heart-shaped scar on twig where last  Endodermis
years leaf grew.  Pith

 Bundle Scar  Epidermal Tissue

 Tiny bumps in leaf scar where veins  It is the outer layer of the stem.
enter the leaf from the stem.  The walls are thickened and covered
with a thin waterproof layer called
 cuticle.
Trichomes
 these are unicellular hair-like outgrowths

Terminal Bud
 Bud on end of a
branch, where all of
next years length (of
branch) is added.
 Vascular Bundle
 Lateral Bud  This consists of three main tissues: the
 Small buds along xylem, phloem and cambium.
length of branch that Xylem
develops into leaves, lateral branches, or  Water conduction tubes connect leaf to
flowers roots. Inner most xylem dies & forms
wood.
 Lenticel
 pore in the outer layer of a woody plant Phloem
stem, through which gases pass from  Outer tubes just inside
inside the stem to the atmosphere or bark to carry food from
vice versa leaves to roots.

Cambium
 Special cells that make
new wood (xylem) & new
phloem & bark to make tree trunk thicker.
Found between xylem & phloem.

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 Ground Substance
 This comprises the cortex and the pith.

Cortex
 This region
comprises the
collenchymas,
parenchyma and
endodermis.

Endodermis SPECIALIZED STEMS

 This cells store starch. It allows the
solutions to pass from the vascular bundle  Rhizomes
to the cortex.  Tubers
Pith  Bulbs
 This occupies the large central part of the  Corms
stem. It consist of thin-walled parenchyma  Stolo
cells with intercellular air spaces
Rhizomes
TYPES OF STEM  a horizontal stem growing at or
beneath the surface of the ground.
DICOT  They may be slender (quack grass) and
 Limited number of vascular bundles serve chiefly for reproduction, or may
 Vascular bundles are arranged in rings be swollen by stored food (iris).
 Cambium occurs between xylem and
phloem
 Cortex and pith are clearly distinguished Tubers
 Secondary thickening occurs  A tuber is an enlarged tip of a
 Annual rings are formed due to secondary rhizome. It stores much food and is located
thickening at the end of a slender rhizome

MONOCOT
 Large number of vascular bundle Bulbs
 Vascular bundles are scattered in the  A bulb is a large, rather globose
ground tissue perennial bud with a small basal
 No cambium occurs between the xylem stem at its lower end, from which grow
and the phloem fleshy, scale -like, overlapping
 No distinction between the cortex and leaves (onion, tulip).
the pith  Bulbs serve chiefly for storage,
 No secondary thickening reproduction and for carrying the
 No annual rings formed plant through seasons unfavorable
for active growth.

Corms
 A corm is a rather globose
perennial stem with thin,
papery leaves on its surface
(gladiolus, crocus).

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 Corms serve for storage, reproduction and Wide flattened area of leaf for concentrating
for carrying the plant through an sunlight on photosynthetic cells
unfavorable season.
Petiole. Short stem that attaches the leaf to
main stem or branch

Node. Growth regions of the stem where

leaves or new branches arise.
Stolon or
Runner
 is a
slender Axillary Bud. Baby leaf or stem
stem that grows horizontally along the
ground, giving rise to roots and aerial
(vertical) branches at specialized points
called nodes.
Midrib. Large center veins from which all
other leaf veins extend

Apex. This refers to the tip of the leaf

THE LEAF STRUCTURE
Base. Attached to petiole; if petiole is
WHAT IS A LEAF? absent (sessile leaves) attaches
 It is a lateral outgrowth of a stem, arising at directly to stem
a node, and possessing a
bud in its axil. Margin. The edge of the leaf.
 They are collectively
referred to as “foliage”. Stipule. Leaf like outgrowth at the
base of the petiole
FUNCTIONS OF A LEAF
1. Manufacture food through the process of Veins. The conducting tissue of the leaf
photosynthesis
2. Respiration- gas air exchange TYPES OF LEAVES
3. Transpiration- water transport
4. Food Storage- during germination 1. Simple Leaf. Are those in which single leaf
5. Protect vegetative and floral buds blade or lamina is present

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF 2. Compound Leaf Are those which the leaf
blade or lamina is divided into number or
segments known as leaflets or pinnae

Leaf
Blade.

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 TYPES OF COMPOUND LEAVES  Spiral or Alternate
 Opposite
 Pinnately Compound Leaf  Whorled
 Paripinnate  Rosette
 Imparipinnate
 Palmately Compound Leaf 1. Spiral or Alternate. A single leaf is
produced at a node
a. Pinnately Compound Leaf Leaves have the
leaflets arranged along the main or mid-vein

2. Opposite. There are two leaves at

a node

3. Whorled. Three or more leaf grow

at the same nodes
TYPES OF PINNATELY COMPOUND LEAF
4. Rosettes. Spiral cluster of leaves arranged at
the base

TYPES OF UNIPINNATELY COMPOUND LEAF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEAF MARGIN

 Entire
1. Imparipinnate. A pinnately compund leaf  Ciliate
with terminal leaflet.  Crenate
 Dentate
 Denticulate
2. Parippinate A pinnately  Doubly Serrate
compund leaf lacking  Serrute
terminal leaflet.  Sinuate
 Lobate
 Unduate
b. Palmately Compound  Spiny or Pungent
Leaf. Leaves have the leaflets
radiating from the end of the petiole, like
fingers of the palm of a hand

TYPES OF LEAF ARRANGEMENT IN A STEM

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 Two Types of Reticulated Veins

1. Pinnate- there is a main vein

called the midrib from which
other nerves are derived

2. Palmate- the nerves are derived

from a main point such as the
fingers do in the palm of the hand

LEAF APEX
 Acuminate
 Acute
 Cupsidate
 Emarginate
 Mucronate
 Mucronulate
 Obcordate
 Obtuse
LEAF VENATION  Truncate
 Parallel
 Reticulate
 Pinnate
 Palmate

The arrangement of veins or veinlets in the

lamina of a leaf is termed as “Leaf Venation”

a. Parallel- the veins run

along each other from the
base of the blade to the tip
(bamboo) or alongside each
other at a similar angle to
the midrib of the blade (e.g.
banana)

b. Reticulate (Netted)-
when the veinlets form a
network

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 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A LEAF  The site of photosynthesis.
 It facilitates the gas exchange
between plant leaf and external
environment.
 It allows carbon dioxide to enter
and the oxygen to be released.

Guard Cells
 These surrounds the stomata;
 regulates the opening and
closing of the stomata to
facilitate and control
transpiration.
Cuticle
Mesophyll
 A waxy repellant layer that covers the
 The green material on the leaf that
above ground areas of the plant leaf to
allows plant to enact the process of
prevent water loss
photosynthesis.

Palisade Mesophyll
 contains cells with a high number of
chloroplasts, which are
necessary to the process of
Epidermis photosynthesis.
 Consist of the upper and  The chloroplasts perform the
lower epidermis process of converting energy
from the sun into sugars which fuel the
plant

Upper Epidermis Spongy Mesophyll

 A single layer of cells  have large spaces between
containing few or no cells and contain less
chloroplast chloroplasts, serving as a
 permit most of the system for gas exchanges in
light that strikes the plant.
them to pass through to the underlying cells
 Covered by cuticle to prevent water loss Vascular Bundles
 These serve as the transport system;
Lower Epidermis contains the xylem and the phloem
 This contains
important structures Xylem
in leaf such as the  Used to replace water lost
stomata and guard during transpiration and
cells photosynthesis
 This contains important structures in leaf Phloem
such as the stomata and guard cells  Transport foods from the
leaves to the rest of the plant
Stomata

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 SPECIALIZED OR MODIFIED LEAVES Insect Trapping Leaves. Pitcher plants, sundew
 Bud Scales and Venus’ fly trap have these specialized
leaves which attract, capture and digest
insects.

FLOWER & ITS STRUCTURE

FLOWER
 A flower, sometimes known as a bloom
or blossom,
 It is the reproductive structure found in
plants
 it effects reproduction in plants
 it contains the sex organs of plants

 Spines PARTS OF A FLOWER

 Bulb Scales  PEDUNCLE
 Water Storage  The stalk of the flower.
Leaves
 Tendrils
 Insect Trapping
Leaves  RECEPTACLE
 The part of the flower stalk where
Bud Scales. These are the parts of the flower are
overlapping, modified leaves attached.
which protect internal
growing tissue of the buds of
most plants.

Spines. Spines with buds in  SEPAL

their axils are modified  The outer part of the flower that
leaves. They protect plants encloses a developing bud;
from grazing animals collectively known as the calyx

Bulb Scales. In such

underground stems as the  PETAL
tulip and onion, bulb scales The part of the flower that is often
serves as food storage conspicuously colored; attract insect
pollinators; collectively known as
Water Storage Leaves. Fleshy structures with corolla
thick layers of cutin serves for storage of water
 STAMEN
Tendrils. Some plants use these whole leaves or  The pollen producing part of the
part of leaves or stem for climbing. flower;
 the male reproductive organ
 made up of pair of anthers and a
filament
 ANTHER

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 - The part of the stamen where pollen is
produced  PERFECT FLOWER
 A flower which contains both the male
 FILAMENT and female reproductive structures.
- Positions the anther for effective pick up
of pollen by the pollinating agent.  IMPERFECT FLOWER
 A flower which lacks stamen or carpel.
 CARPEL/ PISTIL
 the female reproductive organ Staminate- a flower which lacks carpel/pistil
 the ovule
producing part
of a flower
 consists the
ovary, style
and stigma

 OVARY
 The enlarged basal portion of the pistil
where ovules are produced.

 OVULES
 The place where
female Carpellate/ Pistillate- a flower which lacks
reproductive cells stamen
are made and
contained; this  COMPLETE FLOWER
develops into seed  A flower having petal, sepal, stamen and
after fertilization pistil. (e.g. Hibiscus)

 STIGMA
 The part of the pistil where pollen grains
germinates.

 POLLEN
 The male gamete;
contains half the
genetic information for
the production of new plant

 INCOMPLETE FLOWER
 A flower which lacks one of the four
DIFFERENT TYPES OF structures (petal, sepal, stamen and pistil)
FLOWERS
 Perfect Flower THE PROCESS OF POLLINATION
 Imperfect Flower
 Complete Flower  POLLINATION
 Incomplete Flower

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  occurs when pollen is moved within transfer the pollen grain from the anther
flowers or carried from flower to flower by to the carpel or pistil.
pollinating animals such as birds, bees,
bats, butterflies, moths, beetles, or other Abiotic Pollination
animals, or by the wind.  Anemophily
 Pollination is the process of transfer of - the most common form of abiotic
pollen grains from the stamens to the pollination, it is pollination by wind
ovules of the ovary.
 Hydrophilly
TYPES OF POLLINATION - pollination by water and it occurs in
 SELF POLLINATION aquatic plants as they release pollens
 CROSS POLINATION directly into the surrounding water
medium.
 SELF POLLINATION
 takes place when the pollen from one Biotic Pollination
flower pollinates the same flower or other  Entimophily or Insect Pollination
flowers of the same individual. - pollination carried out by insects. This
 a form of pollination which can occur process of pollination occurs in plants
when a flower has both the male and where they have colored petals and a
female in perfect flowers. strong odor to attract insects like bees,
wasps and some ants, beetles, moths
Two Types of Self Pollination and butterflies.
 Autogamy
- the type of self pollination where the  Zoophily
pollen is transferred to the stigma of the - It is the pollination performed
same flower. by vertebrates like birds
 Geitonogamy (ornithophily) and bats
- It is a process when the pollen is (chiroperophily )
transferred to another flower on the
same plant. - Plants that get pollinated by bats and
moths are usually have white petals and
 CROSS POLLINATION a strong scent. Plants that are pollinated
 also known as “allogamy”. by birds usually develop red
 occur when pollen grains are transferred petals and rarely have any
to a flower from a different plant. odor.
 The process of cross pollination requires
the help of abiotic or biotic agents like
wind, water, insects, birds, bats, snails and
other animals as pollinators

Two Types of Cross Pollination

 Abiotic Pollination
- process where the pollination is carried
out without the involvement of other
organisms
 Biotic Pollination
- process of pollination that requires
pollinators like some organisms that

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