NPR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY,
DINDIGUL
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING
GI-8013-ADVANCED SURVEYING-III-CIVIL

PRESENTED BY,
[Link]
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
 UNIT IV ASTRONOMICAL SURVEYING

UNIT I -ASTRONOMICAL SURVEYING

Astronomical terms and definition – Motion of
sun and stars – Celestial co-ordinate System -
Time system - Nautical Alamance – Apparent
attitude and corrections – Field observations
and determinations of time, longitude,
latitude and azimuth by attitude and Hour
angle method.

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CONTENTS
• Celestial sphere
• Astronomical terms and definitions
• Motion of sun and stars
• Apparent altitude and corrections
• Celestial co-ordinate systems
• Different time systems
• Use of Nautical almanac
• Star constellations
• Calculations for azimuth of a line

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Shape and Size of Earth

Shape of the earth is sphere
regular figure for simplified calculation
Equatorial radius of earth (a) = 6378.388 km
Polar radius of earth (b)= 6356.912 km

Survey of India gives a =6377.3097 km and b=6356.1087 km

Ellipticity factor = a 2  b2
a

India : 1/300-80

Mean radius of earth is 6367.272km

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Celestial sphere
The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of arbitrarily large radius, concentric with the
observer
•All objects in the observer's sky can be thought of as projected upon the inside surface of the
celestial sphere, as if it were the underside of a dome or a hemispherical screen.
•The celestial sphere is a practical tool for spherical astronomy, allowing observers to plot
positions of objects in the sky when their distances are unknown or unimportant.

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Astronomical terms and definitions
Zeinth (z) : It is a point on the upper portion of celestial sphere immediately above
the overhead of an observer
Nadir (z’) : It is the intersection of a vertical line through the observer’s station to the
lower portion of the celestial sphere
Celestial or Rotational Horizon (Geocentric or true horizon): It is a great circle traced
upon the celestial sphere by that plane which is perpendicular to zeinth-nadir line
and which passes through the centre of the earth
Sensible Horizon : It is a circle in which a plane passes through the point of
observation and tangential to earth’s surface intersects with celestial sphere. The
line of sight of an accurately levelled telescope lies in this plane
Visible Horizon:

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Fig 1 Fig 2 9
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Sivapriya Vijayasimhan 10
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Motion of SUN and STAR
Sun
Located at a distance 93,005 km from earth
Dia of Sun = 109 Dia of earth
Mass of Sun = 3,32,000 of earth
Temperature of earth = 20 million degrees
Motions: Two apparent motion of earth
1. With respect to earth east to west
2. With respect to fixed stars in celestial sphere
Motion of sun is along the great circle – ecliptic
Obliquity of Ecliptic – angle between the plane of equator and the ecliptic ( 23027’)
Equinoctial Point : Point of intersection of ecliptic with equator. Here declination of sun is zero
Vernal Equinox : First point of aeries in which the sun’s declination changes from south to
north
Autumnal Equinox : First point of libra in which the sun’s declination changes from north to
south
Solstices : Sun’s declination is maximum
Summer solstices : north declination is maximum at a point
Winter Solstices : South declination is maximum

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Star
Moon rerates the earth in elliptical orbit(average angle 508’)inclined to the plane of ecliptic,
which is intersected at points called Nodes
Motions:
1. With respect to earth east to west
2. With respect to fixed stars it is from west to east
Moon rotates about its polar axis. New and full occur when sun, earth and moon lie in same
vertical plane (not necessarily in same straight line)

Conjunction : in new moon ,moon lies between sun and earth and has same latitude as sun
Opposition : In full moon , earth lies between sun and moon
Waxing : Illuminated limb increase in size of moon between the time interval of new and full
moon period
Waning : Illuminated limb decrease in size of moon between the time interval of full and new
moon period
Lunar Month : Time taken between two successive new moons (27 ⅓ days)
Siderial Month : One complete revolution relative to stars (29.5 days)
Solar Eclipse: moon passes in front of sun’s disc
Lunar Eclipse: Shadow of earth passing over the moon

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1. Spherical Triangle
It is formed by surface of the sphere by interaction of three arcs of great circle
The angle subtended by the axes at the vertices of the triangle is called spherical angles
ABC – spherical triangle
AB and AC are great circles with subtended angle BAC = A0

1.1Properties of spherical triangle

1. Any angle is less than two right angles or π
2. Sum of three angles is less than six right angles or 3 π and greater than two right angles or
π
3. Sum of any two sides is greater than the third
4. If the sum of any two angles, is equal to two right angles to π, the sum of the angles
opposite them is equal to two right angles or π
5. The smaller angle is opposite the smaller side and vice-versa
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Sivapriya Vijayasimhan 16
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[Link] of Stars
Star of Elongation :When it is at greater distance east or west of meridian. Under this
condition azimuth of star is maximum.
Eastern or western elongation of a star is at its greatest distance to west or
east of meridian respectively
Star at Prime Vertical: When the observer, at zenith , the angle is right angled in the
astronomical triangle. A = 90 deg
Star of Horizon : Its altitude is zero and the zenith distance is equal to 90 deg
Star at Culmination : When the star crosses an observer meridian the star is said to be
culminate or transit. In one revolution, each star crosses a meridian twice.
Upper culmination : altitude is maximum
Lower culmination : altitude is minimum

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Circumpolar Star : Stars which are always above the horizon and which evidently do not set.
For an observer it is an circle above the pole
Declination of such stars is always greater than the co-altitude of the place of observation
M1 – circumpolar star having circular path A1A2 (path above horizon)
M2 – circumpolar star having circular path B1B2 (path below horizon)

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Co-ordinate Systems
Position of heavenly body can be located by two-spherical co-ordinates, two angular distances
measured along arcs of two great circles which cut each other at right angles
One of great circle passing through the heavenly body is called Primary circle of reference,
whereas the other is called as Secondary circle of reference

Point M represents heavenly body with reference to a plane OAB

O –origin of the co-ordinates
A plane passing through OM shall cut a perpendicular plane OAB in line OB
Two spherical co-ordinates of the point M are angles AOB and BOM at centre O

Systems :1. Altitude and Azimuth , [Link] and right ascension system and
3. Declination and hour angle system

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[Link] and Azimuth System
Also called as horizon system which is dependent on the position of the observer
Horizon is a plane of reference and the co-ordinates of a heavenly body (azimuth and altitude)
- It is the primary and secondary reference great circle in observer’s meridian
- Horizontal and vertical angles are measured - theodolite
- The heavenly body can be in eastern or western part of the celestial sphere
Heavenly body in eastern part of celestial sphere. Let Z be the observer’s zenith and P be the
celestial pole
Great circle is passing through Z and M is drawn to cut the horizon plane at M’
The azimuth (A) angle between the observer’s meridian and the vertical circle through the
body is the first co-ordinate
Azimuth is equal to the angle at zenith between the meridian and the vertical circle through
M. The co-ordinate of M is the altitude (α), which is measured above or below the horizon
on vertical circle

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Heavenly body in western part of celestial sphere.
The concerned angles NOM(azimuth) and MOM’ (altitude)
In northern hemisphere, the azimuth is always measured from north to east or west
In southern hemisphere, the azimuth is measured from south to east or west

Zenith Distance = ZM-MM’

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[Link] and Right Ascension System (Independent equatorial system)
Two great circles :
1. Equatorial circle – primary circle
2. Declination circle – secondary circle

The first co-ordinate of heavenly body is the right ascension

It is the angle along the arc of celestial equator measured from the first point of aeries and
also the angle between the hour circle through (γ)

Declination (δ) is the angle of the body measured from equator along the arc of declination
circle

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[Link] and Hour angle System (Dependent equatorial system)
Two great circles :
1. Horizon – primary circle
2. Declination circle – secondary circle

The first co-ordinate of M is the hour angle

It is the angle subtended at the pole, between observer's meridian and the declination of the
body
In northern hemisphere the hour angle is measured from south towards the west up to the
declination circle. It varies between 00 to 3600 .
00 to 1800 – star is in western hemisphere
180o to 3600 – star is in eastern hemisphere

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Relationships between co-ordinates
[Link] between altitude of the pole and latitude of the observer
H-H horizon plane
E-E equatorial plane
O – is the centre of the earth
ZO is perpendicular to HH while OP is perpendicular to EE
Latitude of place    EOZ
Altitude of pole    HOP
EOP  900  EOZ  ZOP    ZOP
HOZ  900  HOP  POZ    POZ

Equating both equation

  ZOP    POZ
 

Altitude of the pole is always equal to the latitude of the observer

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[Link] between latitude of observer and declination an altitude of a point on the
meridian
M 1  EM 1    declination
SM 1   meridian altitude of star
M 1Z  z  meridian zenith of star
EZ    latitude of the observer
EZ  EM 1  M 1Z
   z

If star is below the equator, -ve sign for δ and also if the star is to the north of zenith –ve sign
for z
If the star is north of zenith but above the pole as at M2
ZP  ZM 2  M 2 P
(900   )  (900   )  p p= polar distance = M2 P
   p

If the star is north of zenith but below the pole

ZM 3  ZP  M 3 P
(900   )  (900   )  p
p= polar distance = M3 P
   p

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[Link] between right ascension and hour angle
M – position of the star
SPM - westerly hour angle
SP - westerly hour angle for first position of aeries position γ
PM - right ascension of star

Hour angle of equinox = Hour angle of star + RA of star

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Correction to Apparent altitude
[Link] correction
2. Observational correction
1. Instrumental Correction
a. Corrections for altitudes i. Index and [Link] error
b. Corrections for azimuths

i. Index error
Small vertical angle between the line of collimation and the horizontal bubble line of the
altitude or azimuthal bubble
Procedure
1. With telescope normal in face left position any well-defined object such as church spire or
a chimney is bisected and angle is α1
2. The face is changed (Right face) and the telescope is reversed and the same object is
bisected and angle is α2
Mean,  '  1   2
2
If the observations are not possible to take on both sides, correction for index error is
applicable
It can be eliminated by taking reading on both faces

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[Link] error
If the bubble tube is not at the centre while taking reading, correction for bubble error is
applicable
Correction fro bubble error, C  O  E v (seconds)
n
O - sum of readings of the object glass end of the bubble
E - sum of readings of the eye piece end of the bubble
n – number of bubble ends read
v- angular value of one division of bubble in seconds

The observed altitude when corrected for index error and bubble error is called apparent
altitude

b. Corrections for azimuths

c  b tan 
c – correction for azimuths
b – inclination of horizontal axis of the transit with respect to horizontal, sec
α – vertical angle to high point
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[Link] Correction
i. Correction for parallax ii. Correction for refraction
iii. Correction for dip of the horizon iv. Correction for semi diameter

i. Correction for parallax

When Sun and star are viewed from different points, change in direction of the body is
observed due to parallax
Parallax in altitude is called diurnal parallax
O – centre of earth ‘
A – plane of observation
S – position of Sun at time of observation
S’ – position of sun at horizon
OC – true horizon
AB – sensible horizon
SAB   ' = observed altitude
SOC   = true altitude, corrected fro parallax
ASB  pa = parallax correction
ASO  ph = Sun’s horizontal parallax

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R
When Sun is on horizon (apparent altitude is zero), ph 
OS '
Sun’s horizontal parallax varies from 8.95” from Jan to 8.66” during early July
True altitude    SOC  SBS '  SAB  ASB    pa
'

Parallax correction     '  pa

From AOS ,
OA
sin SO  sin OAS
OS
OA OA
sin pa  sin(900   ' )  cos  '
OS OS
But, OA OA
  sin ph
OS OS '
 sin pa  sin ph cos  '

pa and ph are very small, pa  ph cos  '

Correction for parallax = (horizontal parallax) x cos (apparent altitude) = 8.8” cos  '

- Correction is additive
- Correction is maximum when the Sun is at horizon

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ii. Correction for refraction
As the distance from surface increases, the layers of atmospheric air
surrounding the earth becomes thinner
Due to variation in atmospheric density, the ray of light passes
through the atmosphere bents
Because of this, body appears to be nearer to zenith than it actual

Refraction angle of correction: Deviation of angle of ray from its

direction on entering the earth’s atmosphere to its direction at the
surface of earth

At a pressure of 76 cm of mercury and 10 o C ,

Correction for refraction ( in sec) = 58 “ cot α = 58” tan z
α – apparent altitude of heavenly body : z – apparent zenith distance of heavenly body

Correction is subtractive
Factors influencing
1. Density of air 2. Temperature 3. Barometric pressure and 4. Altitude

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iii. Correction for dip of the horizon
Angle of Dip : angle between the true and visible horizon
Due to curvature of earth, visible horizon is below the true horizon
Angle of dip is angle between the two horizons and this has to be
subtracted from the observed altitude of the body

A – position of observer
AB – h – height of observer above sea-level
S – position of Sun or Star
AD – visible horizon
AC – true horizon
SAD   ' - observed altitude of sun or star
SAC   - true altitude of sun or star
CAD   - angle of dip
R - radius of earth
Then,
BO = R and AO = (R + h)

 AD  R  h2  R 2
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CAD  AOD  
AD R  h   R 2
2

tan   
OD R
h( 2 R  h)
tan   2
(exact )
R
2h
tan   2
(approximate)
R
Β= small, then

2h
tan    (radians) 
R
Correction for dip is subtractive

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iv. Correction for semi-diameter
Half of angle subtended at centre of earth by sun
and star is the semi-diameter of earth
Semi diameter of earth varies from 15’46” (July) to
16’18” (January)
Mean distance value is 16’1.18”

Sun’s diameter is the tangent sight of sun’s image by cross hair

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OA – ray corresponding to lower limb of Sun
1 - observed altitude
α - corrected altitude
OB – ray corresponding to upper limb of Sun
 2 - observed altitude
γ/2 is semi diameter,
 
  1   2 
2 2

When horizontal angle is measured to Sun’s right or left limb correction is equal to sun’s semi-
diameter times the second of altitude is applied.
Correction for semi – diameter in azimuth = semi diameter x secant α

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Time System
Earth moves from west to east
Measurements of time depends on the apparent motion of heavenly bodies by earth’s
rotation on its axis
Four kinds of time
1. Sidereal time 3. Mean solar time
2. Apparent solar time Astronomers 4. Standard time Relevant every day

[Link] Time
Sidereal Day : Time interval between two successive upper transits of first point of aeries over
same meridian
Sidereal noon : instant of crossing
Time : 1 Day ( 0 to 24 hrs) 1 hrs = 60 min 1 min = 60 seconds
Local sidereal time (LST) : Right Ascension (RA) of meridian of place
LST = RA of star + westerly hour angle of star
If LST > 24 hrs, 24 hrs has to be deducted: If LST < 24 hrs, 24 hrs has to be added
LST = RA of mean sun ± 12 hr + (mean time of that place)
Sidereal time of transit of star = RA of star

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2. Apparent Solar time
Apparent solar Day : Time interval between two successive lower transit of center of sun over
the same meridian
Apparent solar day(24 hrs) 60 min 60 sec
Calculated on the basis of “motion of Sun”

[Link] Solar Time

Mean sun(imaginary body) is assumed to move at a uniform rate along the equator in order to
make solar day of uniform period.
Mean Solar Time : Time when measured by diurnal motion of mean sun (clock time)
Mean solar day or civil day : time interval between two successive lower transits of mean sun
over same meridian

Astronomical day : zero hr to midnight

Civil day : 1. midnight to noon - anti meridian (am)
2. noon to midnight – post meridian (pm)

i. Conversion
ii. Relationships
iii. Local mean time 40
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i. Conversions
a. If civil time is am, the astronomical time is same
b. If civil time is pm, the astronomical time = civil time + 12 hrs
c. If astronomical time is less than 12 hrs, civil time is same
d. If astronomical time is greater than 12 hrs, civil time = astronomical time+12 hrs

ii. Relationships
Between hour angle, right ascension and time
Apparent solar time = hour angle + 12 hrs
Mean solar time = hour angle of mean sun + 12 hr
Local sidereal time = RA of mean sun + hour angle of mean sun
Sidereal time of apparent moon(sun crosses the meridian of any place) = RA of Sun
Sidereal time of mean noon = RA of mean sun

iii. Local Mean Time

Mean time at meridian of observer
All places along the same meridian shall have same local time.
Mean time - Greenwich mean time

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[Link] Time
Mean time on meridian as the standard time for the whole of country Standard meridian
Meridian passing Greenwich – Greenwich mean time (GMT)
Time : 0 to 24 hrs
Mean time associated with standard meridian - Standard time
India : 82030’ E or 5 hrs 30 m east

Standard time = LMT ± difference of longitude in time between the given place and standard
meridian

+ sign – standard meridian to west

- sign - standard meridian to east

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Equation of Time
Difference between apparent solar time
and mean solar time
+ sign – Sun after clock
- Sign – Sun before clock
Equation of time = RA of mean Sun – RA of Sun
varies between 0 to 16 min
April 15, June 14 , September 1 and December 25
- mean time and apparent time are same
The difference is due to obliquity of real sun and
mean sun
LST = RA of mean sun + hour angle of mean sun
LST = RA of sun + hour angle of sun
RA of mean sun – RA of sun
= hour angle of sun – hour angle of mean sun
Equation of time
= hour angle of sun – hour angle of mean sun
Equation of time
= apparent time – mean time
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Azimuth of a Survey Line
Angle between observer's meridian and vertical circle passing through the body

Azimuth Observation
1. Measuring the horizontal angle between a reference mark and heavenly body
2. Determine the azimuth of the celestial body

Reference mark – azimuth of star or heavenly body

- Triangulation station lantern or electric light
- Line of sight should be well above ground to minimum the error due to lateral deflection

Azimuth of reference mark is calculated from measured angle and known azimuth of celestial
body
Azimuth of survey line may be obtained measuring the horizontal angle between the reference
mark and line and combining with azimuth of the reference

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Determination of Azimuth of a Survey Line
- Extra meridian observation of the Sun
- Extra meridian observation of circumpolar star or of a star near Prime vertical
- Observation of a circumpolar star at elongation

[Link] meridian observation of Sun

Astronomical triangle ZPS is used to compute azimuth Sun
A sin( s  ZP) sin( s  ZS )
tan 
2 sin s sin( s  PS )
2s  ZP  ZS  PS
sin   sin  sin 
cos A 
cos  cos 

Azimuth OB = NOB  NOD  BOD  A  BOD

Observation of Sun’s time = 8 am to 10 am or between 2 and 4 pm

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[Link] meridian observation of circumpolar star
Observation of Star is taken when it is on or near the prime vertical as it move slowly in
azimuth
Refraction will be greater if the star is too low

3. Observation of a circumpolar star at elongation

Plane of declination and plane of vertical circle is right angles
Procedure to calculate star elongation
[Link] angle of star is calculated by knowing latitude of the place and declination of star
tan(latitude )
cos(hourangle) 
tan(declinatio n)
[Link] angle is converted into time and added to RA of star (west elongation) or subtracted to
RA of star(east elongation)
[Link] is converted into mean time

Azimuth of Star,
cos(declinatio n) cos 
sin A  sin PZS  
cos(latitude ) cos 

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Nautical Almanac(NA)
Astronomical data available
Salient Features
1. Greenwich hour angle of Sun and declination are given for every angle of GMT to 0.1’
Tables for increments and corrections for every minute and second
2. Equation of time(ET) is given to nearest second for intervals of 12 hours and time of
meridian passage every day
3. ET is the quantity to be added to mean solar time to get apparent solar time
4 . Semi-diameter of sun is given to 0.1’ for every 3 day period
5. Sidereal hour angle and declinations are given for 173 stars including 57 selected stars
(accuracy = 0.1’)
6. Polar star table are given

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Thank you

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