CELMOLBIO 315  S PHASE (SYNTHESIS OF DNA)

- Nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed

Lesson 6:
chromatin configuration.
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
- DNA replication can proceed through the
mechanisms that result in the formation of
CELL CYCLE
identical pairs of DNA molecules- sister
- Ordered series of events involving cell growth and
chromatid- that are firmly attached at the
cell division that produces two new daughter cells.
centromeric region.
- Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a
series of precisely timed and carefully regulate
- Centrosome is duplicated. Two centrosomes will
stages of growth, DNA replication, and division
give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus
that produce two identical (clone) cells.
that orchestrates the movement of
- The cell cycle has two major phases:
chromosomes during mitosis.
o Interphase – cell grows and DNA is
replicated.
- At the center of each animal cell, the
o Mitotic phase – replicated DNA and
centrosomes of animal cells are associated with a
cytoplasmic contents are separated, and the
pair of rod-like object, the centrioles, which are
cell divides. at right angles to each other. Centrioles help
organize cell division.

- Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of

the eukaryotic species, such as plants and most
fungi.

 G2 PHASE (SECOND GAP)

- Cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes
proteins necessary for chromosomes
manipulation.
- Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the
INTERPHASE cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources
- The cell undergoes normal growth processes while for the mitotic phase.
also preparing for cell division. - There may be additional cell growth during G2.
- In order for a cell to move from interphase into - The final preparations for the mitotic phase must
mitotic phase, many internal and external be completed before the cell is bale to enter the
conditions must be met. first stage of mitosis.
- The three stages of interphase are called G1, S,
THE MITOTIC PHASE
and G2.
- Multistep processes during which the duplicated
chromosomes are aligned, separated, and move
 G1 PHASE (FIRST GAP) into two new, identical daughter cells.
- From a microscopic aspect, little change is visible. o Karyokinesis
- Cell is quite active at the biochemical level. - Nuclear division; first portion
- The cell is accumulating the building blocks of o Cytokinesis
chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins - Physical separation of cytoplasmic components
as well as accumulating sufficient energy into two daughter cells; second portion.
reserves to complete the task of replicating each
chromosome in the nucleus.

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COORDINATION OF CELL DIVISION REGULATING THE CELL CYCLE
- Multicellular organisms need to coordinate cell - Experiments show that normal cells will continue
division across different tissues & organs critical to grow until they come into contact with other
for normal growth, development & maintenance. cells.
 Coordinate timing of cell division. - When cell come into contact with other cells, they
 Coordinate rates of cell division. stop growing ( Contact Inhibition)
 Not all cells can have the same cell cycle. - Demonstrates that cell growth and division can be
turned on and off.
FREQUENCY OF CELL DIVISION - Proteins called cyclins regulate the timing of the
- Frequency of cell division varies by cell type. cell cycle.
 Embryo
 Cell cycle – 20 minutes.  INTERNAL REGULATORS
 Skin cells - Allow the cell to proceed to the next phase of the
 Divide frequently throughout life. cell cycle only when certain processes have
 12-24 hours cycle occurred inside the cell.
 Mature nerve cells & muscle cells - Ex. These proteins will not allow a cell to
 Do not divide at all after maturity. continue into G2 until all chromosomes have
 Permanently in G0 been duplicated during S phase.

 EXTERNAL REGULATORS
- Speed up or slow down the cell cycle depending
on events outside of the cell.
- Ex. Contact inhibition

WHY SOME CELLS ARE REGULATE DIVISION?

There are several factors that regulate the cell cycle and
assure a cell divides correctly. BINARY FISSION
- Asexual reproduction typically observed in
1. CHECKPOINTS prokaryotes and few single-celled eukaryotes.
- DNA checked to make sure it is copying - There is separation of the parent cell into two
properly. new daughter cells.
- Improper replication = mutation - Process happens with the division and duplication
of the parent’s genetic matter into two parts.
2. CHEMICAL SIGNALS Each daughter cell receives one copy of its parent
- Internal and external DNA.
- It is a primary method of reproduction in
prokaryotic organisms.
- Binary Fission occurs without any spindle
apparatus formation in cell.

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  The single DNA molecule begins replication 4. SPLITTNG OF CELLS
and then attaches each copy to various parts - A new cell wall is formed at this phase, and the
of the cell membrane. cell splits at the center, dividing the parent cell
 When cell starts to get drawn apart, the into two new daughter cells.
original (actual) and replicated chromosomes - Each of the daughter cells contains a copy of the
get apart. nuclear materials as necessary organelles.

MEIOSIS AND SEX CELLS

- However, asexual mode or reproduction has a
- Process called meiosis produces haploid sex cells.
significant drawback.
- During meiosis, two division of the nucleus occur.
 All resultant cells are genetically identical,
- These divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II.
mirror copies of each other and the parent
cell.
 Most antibiotics work on this principle.
 If a parent cell is vulnerable to an antibiotic,
then all resultant daughter cells are
vulnerable too.
 Is a mutation occurs in their genes, and then
it can render a particular strain resistant to
antibiotics.
 Prokaryotes such as E. coli, Archaea a well as
eukaryotes such as euglena reproduce
through binary fission.

The steps involved in the binary fission in bacteria are:

1. REPLICATION OF DNA MEIOSIS I

- The bacterium uncoils and replicates its - Before meiosis begins, each chromosome is
chromosomes, essentially doubling its content. duplicated, just as in mitosis.

2. GROWTH OF A CELL
- After copying the chromosome, the bacterium
starts to grow larger in preparation for binary
fissions.
- Followed by an increase in cytoplasmic content.
- Another prominent trait of this stage is that the
two strands migrate to opposite poles of the cell.

3. SEGREGATION OF DNA
- The cell elongates with a septum forming at the
middle.
- The two chromosomes are also separated in this
phase.

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PROPHASE I METAPHASE I
- Occupies the longest divisions of meiosis. - Synapsed homologous chromosomes are aligned
- Subdivided into five stages: at the equator of the cell.
- Spindle apparatus is completely formed.
1. LEPTONEMA
- Replicated chromosomes (leptotene) appear as
long slender threads.

2. ZYGONEME
- Pairing of homologous chromosomes (synapsis)
- The pair is referred to as bivalent or tetrad
(zygotene).

3. PACHYNEMA
- Chromosomes continue to become shorter and
ANAPHASE I
thicker (pachytene), a series of exchange of
- The whole chromosomes from each tetrad
genetic material can occur (crossing over)
separate and migrate toward the opposite poles
between specific regions of the homologous
of the cell.
chromosomes.
- The centromeres of each bivalent do not divide.
- The chromatins (dyads) remain attached at their
4. DIPLONEMA
respective centromere.
- The tetrad tends to repel each other
(diplotene).
- Crossing- over have taken place.
- Chiasma, the area of contact between two
chromatids, becomes distinct.

5. DIAKINESIS
- Coiling and contraction of the chromosomes
continue.
- The bivalent migrate close to the nuclear
membrane.
- The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear TELOPHASE I
membrane begins to break down. - The dyads reach the poles of the cell.
- Spindle apparatus begins to form. - New nuclear membrane may form.
- New nucleolus may form.
- Cytokinesis occurs resulting into 2 daughter cells
with haploid number of chromosomes.

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MEIOSIS II ANAPHASE II
- Similar to the events of mitosis. - Single stranded chromosomes (monads) separate
- Follows interkinesis. and migrate towards the opposite pole of the
- No chromosomes replication between meiosis I cell.
and meiosis II.

TELOPHASE II
- The monads reach the pole of the cell.
PROPHASE II
- New nuclear membranes may form.
- The dyads become thicker and shorter.
- Cytokinesis occur resulting daughter cells with
- The duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers
the same haploid number of chromosomes.
reappear in each new cell.
- The chromosomes uncoil and become thinner
and invisible again.

METAPHASE II
- The centromeres of each dyad are directed to
the equator of the cell. MITOSIS AND THE CELL CYCLE
- All living organism has a life cycle.
- Then the centromeres divide.
- A life cycle begins with the organism’s formation,
is followed by growth and development, and
finally end in death.
- Individual cells have life cycles.

THE CELL CYCLE

- The cylindrical process of growth and mitosis.
- Consists of four phrases: three stages of
interphase (G1, S, and G2) and mitotic phase.

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INTERPHASE MITOSIS
- The preparatory stage for mitosis not the - Somatic cell division.
resting for the cell does not rest. - Process that produces two daughter cells with
- The nucleus is clearly visible with one or more the same quantity and quality of chromosomes
as the parent cell.
distinct nucleoli.
- Also called duplication division.
- Chromosomes appear as irregular- granular - Refers to the division of the nucleus
form, thus cannot be recognized. (Karyokinesis).
- Consists of three subdivisions: First growth - Quickly followed by the division of the cytoplasm
period (G1), synthesis period (S), and second (cytokinesis).
growth period (G2).
PROPHASE
- Preparation phase.
- Occupies almost 1/3 of mitosis.
- Chromosomes at first appear as thin threads and
becoming shorter and thicker.
- Each chromosome is visible two chromatids held
together by the centromere.
- Chromosomes move toward the equator of the
cell.
- Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell.
- Nucleolus no longer visible.
- Nuclear membrane starts to disappear.
- Mitotic apparatus (asters and spindle fibers in
 G1 PERIOD (PRE-SYNTHESIS INTERPHASE) animal cell) are nearly formed.
- Growth of the cell.
- RNA and protein synthesis take place.
- Building of new protoplasm and cytoplasmic
organelles.
- Enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis are
synthesized.

 S PERIOD (SYNTHESIS PHASE)

- Most critical period.
- DNA synthesis and replication take place.
- RNA and protein synthesis continue.
METAPHASE
- Synthesis of histone and other proteins
- Double-stranded chromosomes are aligned at
necessary to maintain DNA synthesis occur.
the equator of the cell.
- Centriole reproduction (in animal cell) begins. - Centromeres of each chromosome are attached
to the spindle fibers.
 G2 PERIOD (POST-SYNTHESIS INTERPHASE) - Mitotic apparatus completely formed.
- Completion of DNA synthesis and replication. - Nuclear membrane completely disappeared.
- Continuation of RNA and protein synthesis.
- Prepares the cell to undergo mitosis.

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ANAPHASE SYNTHESIS
- Migration phase. - Cellular reproduction is a process by which cells
- Centromeres of each chromosome divide. create new cells, essential for growth, repair, and
- Two set of single-stranded chromatids (daughter reproduction.
chromosomes) separate and move towards - There are several different types of cell division,
opposite poles of the cell. each with its own unique purpose and
- Cytokinesis begins (formation of cleavage furrow mechanism.
in animal cell). - In prokaryotic cells, binary fission is the primary
method of reproduction, where a single cell
duplicates its DNA and divides into two identical
daughter cells.
- Eukaryotic cells, on the other, utilize a more
complex process called the cell cycle, which
involves a series of stages leading to cell division.
- The cell cycle consists of interphase, where cell
grows and replicates its DNA, followed by the
mitotic phase, which includes mitosis and
cytokinesis.
TELOPHASE - Mitosis is the process of nuclear division, where
- Reconstruction phase. the duplicated chromosomes are separated into
- Daughter chromosomes finally reached the two identical daughter nuclei, ensuring that each
opposite poles of the cell. daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic
- Chromosomes begin to become longer, thinner, information.
and less distinct.
- Centrioles are replicated. - While mitosis is crucial for growth and repair,
- Nucleolus reappears. sexual reproduction relies on a specialized form
- New nuclear membrane forms. of cell division called meiosis.
- Mitotic apparatus disappears. - Meiosis involves two rounds of division,
- Cytokinesis completed resulting into two resulting in four haploid daughter cells, each
daughter cells with the same quantity and containing half the number of chromosomes as
quality of chromosomes as the parent cell. the original parent cell.
- During meiosis, genetic diversity is introduced
through crossing over and independent
assortment, ensuring that each gamete (sperm or
egg) carries a unique combination of genes.
- This genetic diversity is essential for the
evolution and adaptation of species.
- Understanding the different types of cellular
reproduction is crucial for comprehending the
fundamental processes of life, from the growth
of organisms to the inheritance of traits across
generations.

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Lesson 7: MENDELIAN MODEL OF INHERITANCE
MENDELIAN GENETICS: FOUNDATION OF INHERITANCE - Based on discrete inheritance factor (genes).
INTRODUCTION TO MENDELIAN GENETICS - Principles:
 Law of Segregation
k GREGOR MENDEL
 Law of Independent Assortment
- Father of Genetics
- Explains inheritance patterns in many organisms.
- Studied inheritance patterns in pea plants.
- Established fundamental principles of heredity. LAW OF SEGREGATION
- Laid groundwork for modern genetics. - Each individual carries two alleles for each trait.
- Alleles separate during gamete formation.
- Each gamete receives only one allele.
- Offspring inherit one allele from each parent.

LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

- Alleles for different traits are inherited
independently.
- Applies to genes on different chromosomes.
- Allows for new combinations of traits in offspring.

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DOMINANT
- Expressed when present (A).

RECESSIVE
- Expressed only when homozygous (a).

o Genotypes: AA, Aa, aa

o Phenotypes: A_ (dominant); aa (recessive)
o Example: Purple (A) vs. White (a) flower color in
PUNNETT SQUARE
peas.
- Tool for predicting offspring genotype and
phenotype.
- Shows all possible combinations of parental
alleles.
- Useful for calculating probabilities of traits.

MONOHYBRID CROSS
- Cross between parents differing in one trait.
o Example: Tall (T) vs. Short (t) pea plants
o Parental genotype: TT x tt
o F1 generation: All Tt (Tall)
o F2 generation: 3:1 ratio (tall: short)

CODOMINANCE
- Both alleles are expressed
equally.
- Neither allele is dominant or
recessive.
o Example: Red (CR) and White
(CW) flower colors.
o Genotype: CRCR, CRCW, CWCW
o Phenotype: Red, Red White, White

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
- One allele is not completely
dominant over the other. DIHYBRID CROSS
- Results in a blended - Cross between parents differing in two traits.
phenotype. o Example: Pea shape (R/r) and color (Y/y)
o Example: Red (R) and White o Parental genotype: RRYY x rryy
(W) snapdragon flowers. o F1 generation: All RrYy
o Genotype: RR, RW, WW o F2 generation: 9:3:3:1 ratio
o Phenotype: Red, Pink, White

SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
- Traits determined by genes on sex chromosomes
(X or Y).
- Often seen on X chromosomes (X-linked).
- Males have higher expression of recessive X-
linked traits.
o Examples: Hemophilia, color blindness.

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GENOTYPIC AND PHENOTYPIC VARIATION
 Genotypic variation: Differences in genetic
makeup.
 Phenotypic variation: Differences in observable
traits.
 Influenced by:
- Genetic factors
- Environmental factors
- Gene-environment interactions
STRUCTURAL CHROMOSOMAL VARIATIONS
SOURCES OF GENETIC VARIATION - Changes in chromosome structure
 Mutation: Changes in DNA sequence. - Can lead to genetic disorders or cancer.
 Recombination: New combinations of alleles. - Types:
 Random mating: Mixing of genetic material.
 Gene flow: Transfer of genes between  DELETIONS
populations.
- Portion of the chromosomes is
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON PHENOTYPE removed (along any genes
 Nutrition contained within this segment).
 Temperature
 Light  DUPLICATIONS
 Stress - Part of chromosome is copied,
 Example: Plant height affected by sunlight and
resulting in duplicate sections
nutrients.
(potentially increases gene
CHROMOSOMAL VARIATIONS IN HUMANS expression).
 Normal human karyotype: 46 chromosomes (23
pairs).  INVERSIONS
 Variations can occur in number or structure.
- A segment of a chromosome is
 Can affect physical and cognitive development.
removed and then replaced
NUMERICAL CHROMOSOMAL VARIATIONS within the chromosome in
 Aneuploidy: Abnormal chromosomal number. reverse order.
 Example: Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)
 Turner syndrome (45, X)  TRANSLOCATIONS
 Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY)
- Segments of two chromosomes
are exchanged (may interrupt
gene sequences).

IMPORTANCE OF MENDELIAN GENETICS

- Foundation for understanding inheritance.
- Basis for genetic counseling and disease
prediction.
- Crucial in plants and animal breeding.
- Insights into human genetic disorders.
- Paved way for modern molecular genetics.

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