RWSSHP Resource Booklet #4

Technical Issues

Technical Issues 1
Five RWSSHP Resource Booklets - have been prepared by the Ministry of Water
Resources for the implementation of the Rural Water, Sanitation & Hygiene Program
(RWSSHP).

They are targeted specifically for Community Facilitators working with WATSANCOs
as they plan, organize and act to improve their potable water supply, sanitation
facilities and hygiene practices.

They include:

 Community Organization
 Money Management
 Technical Issues
 Hygiene & Sanitation
 Facilitation Skills

The Resource Booklets supplement the Community Facilitator’s Guide – a

manual designed to assist the C/F in providing services to the community and the
elected WATSANCO.

Other manuals prepared for the RWSSH Program include:

 The WATSANCO Handbook

 The Woreda Guide to RWSSHP Planning & Management

 The Woreda RWSSHP Operational Manual

All of these documents draw upon materials and experience from other of Rural
Water Supply, Sanitization and Hygiene Programs – including those in Ghana,
Malawi and Tanzania – as well as early experience in Ethiopia. It is expected and
encouraged that these manuals be modified considerably over the first years of the
Program as further experience is gained and local lessons are learned. *

* Specific acknowledgement is given to the extensive work done by trainer/writer Ross Kidd
(Botswana & Canada) in pulling together, in material form, the insights and the “lessons learned” of
dedicated practitioners in neighbouring East African countries.

Technical Issues 2
Introduction

This Booklet looks at TECHNICAL ISSUES. It will provide the information you need
to help the community make informed choices about the type of facilities, their siting,
and their maintenance.

It is divided into the following sections:

1 Surface and Groundwater

2 Dug Wells and Boreholes
3 Springs and Piped Systems
4 Site Selection
5 Pumps
6 Construction
7 Caretakers and Maintenance
8 Site Maintenance
9 Latrines

Surface Water and Groundwater

Many people in the rural areas depend on SURFACE WATER - water from streams,
ponds, or dams. Surface water, unless treated, is not safe for consumption - it gives
people diseases, such as diarrhoea and cholera.

The alternative source of water is GROUNDWATER. This water was originally

rainwater but it has seeped into the ground. Groundwater is a safer source of water
because it has travelled down through several layers of soil and sand and is cleaned
by natural filtration.

Ground water can be:

• tapped by sinking WELLS into the ground water
• protected at places where it flows out in the form of SPRINGS.

There are two types of wells -

• HAND DUG WELLS - wide wells dug by hand which are relatively shallow.
• BOREHOLES - narrow wells drilled by machine - deeper than HDWs

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Hand Dug Wells

Hand dug wells are shallow wells ranging from 5 to 20 metres. They are
constructed in areas where groundwater is close to the surface. To protect the
quality of the water, hand dug wells should be at least 6 metres deep and the top 3
metres should be sealed to prevent contamination by surface water.

Hand dug wells have a large diameter, ranging from 0.8 metres to 1.3 metres. This
ensures that people can enter the well for digging; water can be drawn out by a
bucket; and water is stored for use during peak collection times.

Hand dug wells are much cheaper to construct than boreholes. They can be dug
with simple hand tools (e.g. modified picks, digging hoes, rope and buckets) using
local labour. Digging a HDW takes longer than constructing a borehole (2-4 weeks
for a team of 3-4 workers).

Hand dug wells can be constructed by the community, supervised by a skilled

contractor. This builds a strong sense of ownership of the well.

Water can be drawn out of the well with a hand pump or a bucket (through an
access hole in the cover slab). If a pump is installed, it will protect the well water
from contamination. When the pump breaks down, the access hole in the cover
slab can be opened so that a bucket can be used to draw water until the pump is
repaired. This ensures a continuous supply of water.

The big risk with hand dug wells is that the village digs for 2 or 3 months and then
hits rock and doesn't find water. Hand augers are one way of quickly testing a site
to make sure water is there. A community can auger down to 15 metres in a few
days.

HDWs are not a new technology! Many communities have been using them for a
long time. Traditional wells, however, have some problems:

 Some are poorly lined and collapse.

 They don’t go below the water table and dry up in the dry season.
 The top part is unprotected, so there is a risk of people falling in or the well
becoming contaminated.

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Modern construction methods have overcome these problems:

 CAISSON (concrete) RINGS and IMPROVED DIGGING TOOLS help deepen

the well in loose soils and below the water table. (The caisson rings shut out
unstable soils, and make it possible to dig below the water table and to
deepen the well if the water table falls.) This ensures water year round.
 The top part of the well is protected to avoid contamination.
 A hand pump is added to make collection easier and minimize contamination.

Hand dug wells are a cost effective alternative to boreholes. They are cheaper
and more easily sustainable. The community's past experience, however, may
discourage them from choosing this option. You should help the community
understand the new approach to HDW construction (e.g. lining, digging below water
table using caisson rings, fitting with pump). Show them how these improvements
can give them safe water all year round.

New Digging Methods

The contractor will be expected to use the new HDW construction methods. He will
be paid on the depth of each well, not on a completed well. The aim of this
financial incentive is to ensure he goes deeper into the water table. As part of the
contract he will return the following dry season to check on the well and if
necessary dig it deeper.

Improved Hand Dug Well

TOP well cover, well head, apron, drain channel, and animal trough.
These parts provide safety for users and prevent surface water and
dirt from entering the well.

MIDDLE a shaft or lining made out of concrete rings, stones, or bricks. This
prevents the walls from collapsing and surface water from seeping into
the well.

BOTTOM caisson rings, cutting ring, and filter. These parts allow water to flow
freely into the well and prevent any soil from the aquifer entering the
well.

Technical Issues 5
Boreholes
Boreholes are deep wells that are drilled by machine or by hand. They are suited
for areas where the water table is below 20 metres and the ground is too hard for
hand digging.

Boreholes are narrow in diameter - ranging from 100 to 150 mm. This means that
they are too small for a bucket to enter the hole. Instead a pump is installed to draw
water out of the borehole. A concrete apron is constructed at the surface to hold
and protect the pump. The top 2-4 metres of the hole are sealed with cement to
prevent contamination from the surface.

After drilling, the hole is lined with plastic casing to prevent collapse and slotted
screens to allow water to flow into the well.

The plastic casing is placed at the top part of the hole where there is no water flow
into the well. This keeps the soil from caving in. The casing serves as the housing
for the pump cylinder.

The screens are placed lower down at the water-bearing zone. Slots in the screen
allow water to flow into the well from the water bearing zones. The slots are small
so that soil cannot enter the well and damage the pump.

Hand drilled boreholes are constructed with simple hand operated drilling
equipment. Villagers themselves can do much of the work under the supervision of
a skilled contractor.

Test pumping is done after the borehole is drilled to determine the yield of the
borehole. This is done using a submersible pump.

Civil works are constructed around the top of the borehole or hand dug well. This
usually includes a concrete apron and drain. A hand pump is installed at the top of
the borehole or HDW

Maintenance/Rehabilitation

A borehole will require maintenance about once in ten years. Over time the screen
becomes blocked with sand and silt and the borehole no longer produces sufficient
quantities of water. When this happens, the borehole needs to be cleaned and
redeveloped.

Cleaning is done by blowing air down the hole (with a compressor) to dislodge sand
and silt from the screen and then blow out the dirty material that has been
dislodged. This will help to improve the flow of water from the aquifer through the
screen in the borehole.

Technical Issues 6
Spring Development

SPRINGS occur at places where water bubbles out of the ground in a continuous
flow. Springs are found usually at the bottom of hills. Springs can be developed as
a source for a community's water supply.

A SPRING BOX or SPRING WALL is constructed to provide a collection point for

users, increase water flow, and protect the spring from contamination.

Construction of Spring

The main source of the spring (known as the "eye") is dug out to increase the flow
and expose the firm soil on which the spring box or wall is constructed. The
exposed eye is covered with gravel and sealed with clay or cement mortar. The box
or wall is fitted with pipes (outlet and overflow) to draw out water and allow excess
water to flow into a drain. A diversion ditch is dug above spring to prevent surface
water getting into the spring. The area is fenced to prevent access by people or
animals.

Before developing a spring, check on two things -

 QUALITY: Do a survey to identify all possible sources of contamination

(e.g. latrines, refuse dumps, etc.)

 QUANTITY: Measure the flow of the spring in the dry season to see if
it produces enough water for the community. To measure the flow dam
the spring, redirect water into a container with a known volume, and
time the filling rate.

The example below shows that the spring is producing enough water on a daily
basis for the present population.

WATER PRODUCED BY SPRING

Volume of container: 10 litres

Filling rate: 10 seconds
Volume per minute: 60 litres/minute
Volume per hour: 3600 litres/hour
Volume per day: 86400 litres/day

WATER NEEDED BY COMMUNITY

Needs per person/day: 15 litres

Population of village: 500 people
Total needs per day: 7500 litres

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Piped Water System

PIPED WATER SYSTEM carries water from source to the community in pipes.
Water is pumped (or flows by gravity) into a tank and then distributed by gravity
through pipes to standpipes at different points in village.

SOURCE: The best source is a high yielding spring or a borehole/HDW with a good
yield. The source should be protected.

WATER TREATMENT TANK: A special tank using a sand filter is built to remove
dirt from the water. This is only required if the source is surface water.

STORAGE TANK: This tank fills up during the night and stores water for use during
day. It is built with concrete or galvanised steel. It should be elevated to enable
water to flow to the standpipes by gravity.

PUMP: If the water source is lower than the tank, a pump may be needed to pump
water up into the storage tank.

MAIN PIPELINE: This carries water from source to storage tank. It is buried but
may be above ground in some places. Burying the pipeline protects it from damage.

PIPE NETWORK: This is a series of pipes of smaller diameter that take the water
from main pipeline to standpipes in community. All network pipes are buried
underground so a trench will need to be dug.

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How to Choose the Technical Option
Discuss table below with community:

Option + -
Hand Dug Well Cheap to construct - simple tools. Risk of contamination.
with a Bucket Stores lots of water. Prone to accidents in uncovered wells.
Allows easy access so it can be Dries up in dry season - needs
cleaned. deepening.

Hand Dug Well Can be opened to use a bucket if Contamination when pump breaks
with a Pump pump breaks. down and people use a bucket.
Cheaper than borehole. If water table too deep, only borehole
No or little contamination because possible.
water through pump.

B/hole with a Some contamination during drilling. Expensive -

Pump Borehole chlorinated to eliminate 3 times cost of HDW. If pump breaks,
this contamination. no alternative to get water - people may
Suitable for deep water table and return to old sources.
hard ground. May wait a long time for drilling rig to
Less time and labour to build. come.

Spring Dev. No contamination - source covered. Farming activities around the spring
Year round supply - no reversion to can use up the water.
old source.

Piped System Water brought closer to community. Expensive - cost depends on the
Use of local labour. amount of pipe used.

In helping the community to make these comparisons, you should remember:

1 Hand dug wells are the recommended option where the water table is
shallow.

2 Hand dug wells are not possible if the water table is below 20 metres.

3 Hand dug wells with a bucket can be upgraded - ie at a later stage the
community can put on a hand pump.

4 The community can select a MIX of options (e.g. a combination of hand dug
wells and boreholes) to increase sustainability.

5 Piped systems are only available to large villages with populations between
2000 and 15,000.

Technical Issues 9
Site Selection

After deciding on the type of facilities, the next step is to SELECT SITES. The
community should take an active part since they know their own environment. The
selection will be based on social and technical criteria

Social Criteria

The community should start the selection process. Let them select 2-3 alternative
sites for each facility. The most important factor is easy access - the wells should
be within a short walking distance. If the well is far from the community, they may
not use it. The wells should be centrally located and well distributed over the
settlement.

Women should play a key role in the siting. They fetch the water each day so they
will want to have the new facility as accessible as possible. If it is located further
away from an old source (river or pond), they may continue to use the old source,
especially if they are not convinced it is unsafe.

The community will also know PLACES THAT SHOULD BE AVOIDED - e.g. sacred
groves or cemeteries.

Technical Criteria

Once the community have selected a number of alternative sites, you should visit
each site with the community to check on their suitability. Use the technical criteria
given below.

Places to Avoid

Site wells at least 100 metres away from places that could contaminate the wells
e.g. latrines, septic tanks, refuse dumps, cattle/goat kraals, farms that use
chemicals, and graveyards.

Don’t site the well at places which are water logged or low and may get flooded in
the wet season. Also avoid rocky places, which will make digging difficult.

Signs of a Good site

Get advice from technical people on the siting of the wells so that they are located
on good aquifers that can supply lots of water. Their job is to look at each of the
sites proposed by the community and make the final selection, based on technical
criteria. Make sure the siting contractor listens to the views of the community.

Technical Issues 10
Indicators of good aquifers include:

 layers of gravel and sand

 weathered rock zones
 valleys and river beds
 many ant hills
 deposits of clay for making pots
 the presence of traditional wells

Other indicators of good aquifers are trees and bushes:

 Baobab, mango, nim, and teak indicate that groundwater is deep.

 Banana, sugar cane, and evergreen areas indicate shallow ground water.
 Grass and salty taste of sugar cane indicate salty water underground.

Construction

Community Inputs: The contract will describe community inputs (cash, labour,
and/or materials) and when they are to be provided. Where possible community
commitment fees will be tied to the purchase of specified materials.

Advance Notice: Contractors will be instructed to inform communities well in

advance of the proposed construction schedule, so as to allow them to prepare their
inputs. The inputs will be made according to the schedule in the construction
contract. Any delays will be chargeable to the community.

Labour: In the case of hand-dug wells the contractor will be encouraged to employ
labourers from the community. Caretakers will also take part in the construction so
they have a better understanding of the new facility that they will maintain.

Materials: The HDW contractor will also be encouraged to use local materials
provided by the community. However, the contractor may refuse to use them if they
are poor quality or too expensive.

Supervision: The woreda/regional Water Engineer (or a service provider hired for
this purpose) will be responsible for supervision, with help from the community and
Facilitators. The community will be given training on this function and a checklist.

Pump Installation: Once the borehole or hand dug well is completed, a local
supplier will install the pump. The supplier will also train the caretakers.

Technical Issues 11
Testing: The Water Engineer (or his/her designate) will test completed wells and
record their performance and water quality. In some cases a contractor might be
hired to monitor, disinfect, and test the yields of a number of wells.

Certification: After testing there will be a final inspection and handover ceremony,
attended by WATSANCO, Facilitators, and PMT. A Certificate of Satisfactory
Completion will be signed by WATSANCO and PMT.

Warranty: Hand Dug Well contractors will be required to return to all dug wells at
the end of the dry season following their construction to check on the well and
deepen it, where necessary. Pump suppliers will be required to maintain the pumps
during the warranty period (a period of 12 months after installation).

Community's Role

The community will own the new facility so they should take an active part in the
construction. It is their job to make sure it is built properly. Facilitators and PMT
may help with supervision, but the community is the "manager".

Schedule: The WATSANCO should meet with the contractor before construction
starts to agree on a schedule and how the community can help.

Access Road: Before contractors arrive, the community should clear a road to
make the sites accessible. Where this is difficult because of terrain, they should
help to carry the tools, materials, and equipment to the site.
Food & Accommodation: Community can help arrange accommodation for the
HDW crew, but they are not expected to provide free food for the workers during the
construction.

Storage: The WATSANCO should help store tools, materials, and equipment - as
close to the site as possible - and ensure their safekeeping.

Materials: The community may provide materials for the civil works or hand dug
well as their in-kind contribution to the cost of the well. The contractor will need to
decide if the materials are an acceptable standard and negotiate the price.

Labour: The community may provide unskilled labour as part of their in-kind
contribution. For example they would play a major role in construction of a piped
system - digging the trenches, laying the pipe, and backfilling.

Quality Control: The WATSANCO should check the quantity and quality of
materials used in the construction. They should also check on each part of the hand
dug well as it is being constructed. They should complain to the Facilitators or PMT
if they have doubts about the workmanship.

Site Meetings: WATSANCO should meet with the contractors on a regular basis

Technical Issues 12
(eg once a fortnight) to review progress.

Pump Installation: The caretakers and other committee members should be

present when the pump is installed.

Certificate of Completion: Once the facility is completed, the Water Engineer will
test the performance of the pump, borehole, or well system. WATSANCO will then
give final approval of the work done.

Caretakers

Selection: Each community will select caretakers for their new facility. One
caretaker is needed for each water point - and ideally two. Half of the caretakers
should be women. Most communities look for people who have practical skills, are
hardworking and reliable, trusted by the women using the water point, and available
on a regular basis. Caretakers should live close to the water point and be members
of the WATSANCO.

Job Description: The job is to:

 Carry out routine maintenance (e.g. tighten bolts/nuts).

 Conduct pump tests e.g. check flow of water for signs of leaks or a low water
table in the well.
 Check pump or tap parts and replace worn out parts.
 Keep records of parts bought and used, maintenance and repairs.
 Report major faults to the WATSANCO
 Teach everyone how to use the pump or tap properly.

Training: Caretakers will be trained for the above tasks, given basic tools and
encouraged to do regular inspections and maintenance.

Maintenance Culture: The community are responsible for maintenance, so

everyone should develop a new attitude towards maintenance - a commitment to
using the facility properly. Some parts, such as the Afridev rod, can easily be
damaged if children play with the pump. If people learn to operate it carefully, the
rod won't get damaged and the community will avoid this expense.
Site Maintenance

Technical Issues 13
Site maintenance is a way of protecting the community's investment - the new
facility. It is their responsibility and should be organised at their initiative, not just to
satisfy the Facilitator. A dirty site makes it difficult for women to fetch water, may
contaminate the water, and will attract mosquitoes.

What Needs to be Done?

Keep the Site Clean: Keep the site free from mud, weeds, and excess
water. Sweep the apron and the area around it daily. Weed it whenever
necessary. Scrub the apron and pump stand to remove the green slime.

Drain Spilled Water away from the Site: Standing pools of water around
the well will attract mosquitoes and pollute the well. Make sure that gutters
are swept so that water flows away from the pump pad into the cattle trough.

Protect Pump Apron against Erosion: When the apron is not protected,
the cement will crack. The pump will then become loose and get damaged,
causing expensive repairs. To avoid this, pack stones firmly around the
apron. (This is called BACKFILLING.)

Community Action?

Many WATSANCO Committees find it difficult to get the whole community to support
site maintenance. In some cases they take on this work themselves. This should
be discouraged! It is not WATSANCO's job to do this work on their own. It
should be shared with other community members. WATSANCO are the organisers.
It is their job to motivate and organise community members to do this work.

Each community will find its own way to organise site maintenance. Most
communities assign different tasks to men and women and divide the work among
different sections or clans. For example women are usually assigned to keep the
site clean and this work is rotated among women from different sections. The men
are assigned to weed the site and remove water from the trough (especially in the
wet season). Both men and women help with backfilling - the women bring stones
to the site, the men construct the backfilling.

Technical Issues 14
Latrines

This section provides information on types of latrines. Booklet #3 explained what

you do to promote the building of household latrines.

Some households in Ethiopia have a PIT LATRINE. This type of latrine often has a
number of problems:

 It is poorly constructed and can easily collapse.

 Flies breed in the pits.
 The latrines have a bad smell.

Essential Parts of a Latrine

 PIT - to store excreta and urine

 COVER SLAB - to carry weight of the user and serve as the toilet floor
 SQUAT HOLE - an opening in slab through which excreta enter the pit
 RING BEAM - to transmit weight of user and cover slab into the stable soils
beyond the pit
 SUPERSTRUCTURE (walls, door, roof) - to provide privacy and shelter
 VENT PIPE - reduce flies and smell
 WATER AND SOAP - wash hands!

There are two different designs for the cover slab promoted by RWSSHP -
RECTANGULAR and MOZAMBIQUE (a circular dome-shaped concrete slab). The
Rectangular slab uses iron rods as reinforcement; the Mozambique slab does not.
Some people are unsure about the safety of the Mozambique design because of
lack of reinforcing iron rods. However, the Mozambique is as strong as the
rectangular slab.

Ring Beam and Slab

Proper casting of the concrete items - ring beam and slab - are essential for the
safety and proper functioning of the latrine. This is important not just for the latrine
owner, but also for the success of the whole sanitation program: a collapsing latrine
will not encourage other community members to build one.

The curing process is very important for the concrete to reach its full strength. If the

Technical Issues 15
castings dry out before they have finished curing, they will be weak and likely to
crack. Households should be encouraged to keep ring beam and slab permanently
wet 7 days after casting.

Superstructure

Each family should choose its own materials. The walls could be built out of
sandcrete, landcrete, mud-wattle, sun-dried bricks, or bamboo; the roof out of
thatch, corrugated roofing sheets, or burnt bricks. Encourage the use of locally
available materials.

Siting a Latrine

Where should the latrine be sited?

 30 metres away from water supply so that waste from latrine does not
contaminate the groundwater.
 Close to house so that it is convenient to use by whole family
 On firm soil so that the pit and latrine building will not collapse.
 On a slightly raised ground so that rainwater can drain away from site.

Latrine Maintenance

Keep latrine clean and well maintained to get the full health benefits. A clean latrine
will encourage people to use it!

 Sweep the cover slab regularly and clean with water to remove faeces.
 Don’t cover the squat hole. Covering the hole interferes with the circulation of
air which is responsible for fly and odour control.
 Put anal cleansing materials into pit.
 Keep latrine door closed at all times. This will keep the latrine dark which
helps to prevent flies.
 Check the fly screen regularly. If the fly screen is torn, flies will escape from
the pit and spread disease.
 Check the vent pipe regularly. Make sure it is not blocked or broken. Cut off
tree branches that prevent light or wind movement over top of vent pipe.

Technical Issues 16