CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The history of university education in Nigeria could be said to date back to the

commencement of the University College, Ibadan in the 1947/48 academic year on the basis of

the recommendations of the Elliot Commission Report (Adesina, 1981). The mandate of

universities, according to the National Policy on Education (NPE) Federal Republic of Nigeria,

(2004), is basically to produce and sustain human capital in order to further the economic, social

and technological development of the country. The three main functions of a university are (i) to

impart manpower skills through,(ii) teaching, to pursue knowledge through organized research,

and (iii) to contribute to national and international dialogue and criticism(community services).

Despite the laudable objectives of university education in Nigeria, its aims and

obligations are not fully realized due to some problems encumbering the system. Some observed

problems in the management of Nigerian universities, according to Ekundayo and Ajayi (2009),

include: finance, deteriorating infrastructure, brain-drain syndrome, erosion of university

autonomy, deteriorating quality of graduates due to perceived poor quality of input, volatile and

militant students‟ unionism, cultism, and political interference by the government in power. The

combined effects have accounted for the 2 seeming low level teaching and practical exercises,

low research activities, and output and feeble community services that have resulted in declining

quality of education. Prominent among these problems are students‟ crises and persistent student

and management conflict which have become a stigma in the history of Nigerian universities.

Conflict and its management are an inevitable friction in an organization.

Conflict could be defined as an incompatibility of goals or values between two or more

parties in a relationship combined with attempts to control each other which could result in
antagonistic feelings toward each other. The incompatibility or difference may exist in reality or

may be perceived by the parties involved. Basically, conflict is what occurs when two or more

parties have divergent interests over distribution of resources or issues touching on their

development. Ejiogu (1990) states that conflict is a normal part of human social interaction.

Violent conflict on the other hand, refers to situations where groups or individuals use physical

force or the threat of physical force against each other, often resulting in injury, death,

psychological harm, and material destruction (WHO, 2002). It can occur at various scales, from

interpersonal violence to large-scale wars between nations. Violent conflict has resulted in

thousands of deaths, displacement of communities, and significant economic disruption in

Plateau state over the years. Efforts to address the violence have included peace-building

initiatives, security interventions, and attempts at dialogue between communities, but lasting

solutions remain elusive. This conflict primarily involves disputes between predominantly

Muslim Hausa-Fulani herders and predominantly Christian farmers from various ethnic groups

(Higazi, 2011).

Violent conflicts are facts of life, Inevitable and often creative (Ade kanye 2000).

Conflicts happen when different individual or people pursue goals which clash against one

another. Since conflicts are part of human existence, it can be discussed from the micro

interpersonal level through to groups, organizations, communities and nations including all

human relations, social, economic, and relations of power, experience growth, change and

conflict (Ade kanye 2000).

Safety and security in schools have become a major concern to policy maker and

educational planners in particular due to the level of insecurity existing in school system in

Nigeria. In recent times, there have been increasing concerns about insecurity of students,

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lecturers and school facilities especially in university levels of education in Nigeria. Concern

over insecurity is based on the perceived negligence of government and its agencies to provide

adequate security in schools. Based on the events that unfold daily, parents and guardians seem

not to be comfortable sending their children and wards to schools due to the fact that those

schools may not be secure enough for them. It appears that lecturers and students are finding it

difficult to cope with their daily activities in schools due to the high level of insecurity existing

in school environments. Schools, as sites for teaching and learning, can deliver their educational

mandates only in safe and secured conditions that are free from injuries, crime and violence

(Xaba, 2006). Squelch (2001), stated that school safety and security constitute the responsibility

of the ministry in charge of education. Squelch,(2001)explained further that universities

authority and educators are obliged to ensure learner’s safety during school hours, premised on

their ‘in- loco parentis’ status as well as the educator’s position of authority and duty of care

towards learners.

The challenges of insecurity in the school system have taken the centre stage of national

issues in recent years. The issues of terrorism, kidnapping, militancy, abduction and ransom

taking are no longer the exclusive preserve of one nation or a section of a nation but have taken a

global dimension. Isah and Babayemi (2009) examined the problems of militancy in the Niger

Delta region of Nigeria and they included, among other things, that the demand for resource

control and fiscal federalism culminating into partial arms struggle, kidnapping, ransom taking

and assassinations have had a serious toll on the developmental prospect of the country

Psychological trauma is a personal experience witnessed in stressful events in which an

individual is overwhelmed and unable to cope with his or her emotional reaction to the event or

individual experienced and intense fear, helplessness, loss of control, or threat to or bodily

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integrity (Isah and Babayemi, 2009). The victims of such communal conflicts have suffered

psychological trauma related to displacement loss of job, insecurity, rape and others

consequently and most importantly, the victims of communal conflicts who are mostly children

and women experience more social psychological trauma.

In most settings where conflicts manifest, it is obvious that joint – effort or cooperation

among interest groups are lacking. Besides, the existing organs that can facilitate cohesion and

peace in conflicting societies are near collapse as a result of weak or breakdown in traditional

social value and belief system. Intervention through various educational programmes especially

in terms of ameliorating the critical condition of the vulnerable groups in conflict situation

demands an investigation. Thus, this study is concerned with the study on accessing the phyco-

social impact of communal violence exposure on students in Plateau State University, Bokkos.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Plateau State, Nigeria, has been a hotbed of ethno religious conflict for several decades, with

recurring episodes of communal violence significantly impacting local communities (Krause,

2011). While the broader socio-economic and political consequences of this conflict have been

extensively studied, there is a critical gap in understanding its specific impacts on the

psychological well-being and academic experiences of university students in the affected

regions.

Plateau State University Bokkos, situated in one of the conflict-prone areas, provides a unique

context to examine how exposure to communal violence affects young adults pursuing higher

education. University students, at a crucial stage of personal and professional development, may

be particularly vulnerable to the psychosocial impacts of violence (Barrios-Tao et al., 2020). The

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trauma associated with witnessing or experiencing violence can lead to a range of psychological

issues, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and depression (Morina et al.,

2018). These mental health challenges can, in turn, significantly affect students' academic

performance, social relationships, and overall quality of life (Freh, 2016).

Moreover, the chronic nature of the conflict in Plateau State means that many students have

grown up in an environment of persistent tension and intermittent violence. This long-term

exposure may have complex and far-reaching effects on their psychosocial development, coping

mechanisms, and future prospects (Betancourt et al., 2014). Understanding these impacts is

crucial not only for addressing the immediate needs of the students but also for developing

effective strategies to mitigate the long-term consequences of communal violence on the region's

youth.

Despite the significance of this issue, there is a dearth of empirical research specifically

examining the psychosocial impact of communal violence on university students in Plateau

State. This gap in knowledge hampers the development of targeted interventions and support

systems within higher education institutions in conflict-affected areas.

Therefore, this study aims to assess the psychological effects of communal violence on students

at Plateau State University Bokkos, examine how this exposure affects their social interactions

and academic performance, explore the coping strategies they employ, and identify potential

interventions to support affected students. By addressing these questions, this research seeks to

contribute to the broader understanding of the impact of communal violence on youth in higher

education settings and inform evidence-based policies and interventions to support student well-

being and academic success in conflict-affected regions.

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1.3 Research questions.

1. What are the psychological effects of communal violence on students at Plateau State University

Bokkos?

2. How does exposure to communal violence affect the social interactions and academic

performance of students?

3. What coping strategies do students use to deal with the trauma and stress caused by communal

violence?

4. What interventions can be implemented to support students affected by communal violence?

1.4 Aim and objective of the study

The general objective of this study is to examine the role and impact of communal violence

exposure on students and the psycho-social trauma management among universities students

(victims) of communal conflicts. However, the specific objectives include among other things to:

1. To assess the psychological impact of communal violence on students.

2. To evaluate the social consequences of violence exposure on students.

3. To analyze the coping mechanisms employed by students in response to the violence.

4. To recommend interventions for mitigating the negative impacts of communal violence on

students.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Management of conflicts in recent times has been much embraced than its resolution. One

tool for its effective management is education through enlightenment and the right placement of

priorities in terms of interests, values and belief without necessarily negating others values,

interests and belief. The impact of community cohesion, security, and cooperation in the

5
establishment of development and its related structure cannot be overemphasized; which is a

major focus of interest in conflict management.

It is against this reasoning that to achieve peace and community integration, formal

education programmes must bear significant impact on the reduction of conflicts in community,

especially by intervening on the real sufferings of vulnerable groups.

This study becomes very germane to the contemporary strategies for ensuring effective

conflict management in the communities through people’s empowerment. The study would

serve as a road-map for alternative means of managing conflicts instead of the traditional

approaches, which have failed to guarantee peace and security of life, properties and the

empowerment of victims (students). Therefore, the study will be of immense benefit to the

community members, government at all levels, that is Federal, State and Local Government.

Also the research in this field of study will benefit from the study.

1.6 The Scope of the Study

The study covers the following communities that were affected by the conflict: Ndar,

Chikam, Nghatitandom (across), butra-vet and mai katako amongst community surrounding the

university premises. The scope covered the formal education programmes put in place to reduce

the socio-psychological trauma among student’s victims of communal violence in Plateau state

University Bokkos.

1.7 Operational Definition of Terms

In this study, certain terms are employed and to avoid ambiguities in contextual application,

these terms are given operational meaning.

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Formal Education: This is an activity of the formal system of education geared towards the

acquisition of knowledge, skills, with the view changing the attitude of an individual or groups

of individuals at a particular time in a specific environment from good to better .The activities

include vocational and skills worked oriented literacy programmes, literacy

Violence: Actions intended to cause destruction, pain, or suffering.

Vulnerable Group: students who are victims of communal crisis.

Peace Building: This has to do with repairing relationships, institutions and social facilities and putting

in place schemes that can help the disputing communities to be united once again.

Peace Education: It is a process of promoting sets of values, attitudes, traditions, mode of behaviour and

ways of life based on respect for life, promotion of non-violence through education, dialogues and

cooperation.

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): People who have been forced to flee their homes in large numbers

due to armed conflict, internal strife, systematic violation of human rights or natural or man-made

disasters but are still within the territory of their own country.

Post Conflict Peace Building: This is action to identify and support structures which will tend to

strengthen and solidify peace in order to avoid a relapse into conflict.

Psychological trauma: These are the conflict related problems such as loss of relation, sexual assault,

fear and anxiety, sustenance of injuries, widowhood and stigma.

Social trauma: These are the conflict related problems such as loss of property, loss of job, Communal

conflicts(violence): Misunderstanding or angry disagreement among group of people who live within the

same geographical area for a long time.

Students victims: These are the students who are affected by the communal crisis. students dropping out

of school, lack of income/means of livelihood, family separation.

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Academic performance: This is the general output of students through their academicl results, skills

acquisition, metal stability, technical know-how etc.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORECTICAL FRAME WORK

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 This chapter will undertake a review of scholar's writings that will bear directly on the

research. A literature review is a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge,

including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a

particular topic. Literature review are secondary sources, and do not report new or original

experimental work.

This part which is known as literature review and theoretical framework is divided into

three which are conceptual review, empirical review and theoretical review.

2.1. COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

Communal violence refers to violent confrontations that occur between different groups within a

community, often along the lines of ethnicity, religion, or other social identities. This form of

violence can escalate rapidly, leading to significant harm, displacement, and disruption within

affected communities. Understanding communal violence requires an examination of its

definitions, characteristics, types, drivers, triggers, and the cyclical nature of conflict escalation.

2.1.1 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

[Link]. DEFINITION

Communal violence is defined as violent conflict that arises between distinct groups within a

community, primarily motivated by differences in identity. These conflicts can manifest in

various forms, including riots, mob violence, and organized armed conflict, often driven by

underlying grievances or competition for resources (Galtung, 1990).

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[Link]. CHARACTERISTICS

Group Identity: Communal violence typically involves distinct social groups defined by

ethnicity, religion, or cultural identity. The conflict often centers on perceived threats to the

identity of these groups (Tilly, 2003).

Collective Action: Acts of violence are usually collective, with individuals participating as part

of a group rather than as isolated actors. This collective nature can lead to mob behavior and

escalate quickly, resulting in significant destruction (Cohen, 2013).

Prevalence of Fear and Mistrust: Communal violence thrives in environments characterized by

fear, mistrust, and animosity between groups. Historical grievances, competition for resources,

and political manipulation can exacerbate these emotions (Simmel, 1955).

Cycle of Retaliation: Communal violence often leads to cycles of retaliation, where acts of

violence by one group provoke responses from another. This cycle perpetuates the conflict and

can escalate violence over time (Murshed&Tadjoeddin, 2009).

Impact on Vulnerable Populations: The consequences of communal violence

disproportionately affect vulnerable groups, including women, children, and the elderly. These

populations may experience increased violence, displacement, and loss of livelihood (Miller,

2018).

2.1.2 TYPES OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

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Communal violence can be classified into several types, including:

1. Riots: Spontaneous and often unorganized outbreaks of violence between groups. Riots are

typically fueled by social, political, or economic grievances and can escalate quickly (Horowitz,

1985).

2. Ethnic Conflicts: Conflicts driven by ethnic identity, often rooted in historical grievances,

discrimination, or competition for resources. These conflicts may involve organized groups and

can lead to prolonged violence (Smith, 2001).

3. Religious Violence: Violence motivated by religious differences or conflicts. This type of

violence often occurs in contexts where religious identity is intertwined with political or ethnic

identity (Juergensmeyer, 2000).

4. Gang Violence: Violence involving organized gangs that may have ethnic or territorial

affiliations. Gsang violence often overlaps with communal violence when rival gangs from

different communities engage in violent confrontations (Vigil, 2002).

5. State-Sponsored Violence: Violence that is either directly perpetrated or endorsed by the

state against particular communities. This can occur during political repression or in response to

civil unrest, often leading to significant human rights abuses (Snyder, 2006).

2.1.3 DRIVERS AND TRIGGERS OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

DRIVERS OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

1. Historical Grievances: Long-standing grievances related to past injustices, discrimination, or

marginalization can fuel communal violence. These grievances are often perpetuated through

collective memory and cultural narratives (Ramsbothamet al., 2011).

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2. Economic Disparities: Economic inequality and competition for resources can create tensions

between groups. When one group perceives itself as disadvantaged compared to another, it may

resort to violence as a means of asserting its interests (Bardhan, 2005).

3. Political Manipulation: Political leaders may exploit existing tensions for electoral gain or to

consolidate power. By inciting fear or encouraging divisive narratives, leaders can mobilize their

constituents against rival groups, leading to violence (Brass, 2003).

4. Social Fragmentation: Societal factors such as urbanization, migration, and social

fragmentation can exacerbate divisions between groups, increasing the likelihood of communal

violence (Kalyvas, 2003).

TRIGGERS OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

1. Inciting Incidents: Specific events, such as a controversial political decision, a provocative

speech, or an attack on a group member, can serve as triggers for communal violence. These

incidents can ignite existing tensions and lead to violent outbreaks (Horowitz, 1985).

2. Socioeconomic Crises: Economic downturns, unemployment, and resource shortages can act

as catalysts for violence. When individuals feel threatened or desperate, they may resort to

violence to secure resources (Snyder & Jervis, 1999).

3. Political Events: Elections, changes in government, or policies perceived as threatening to a

particular group can trigger communal violence. Political mobilization often heightens tensions

during such events (Kalyvas& Kocher, 2007).

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4. Media Influence: The media can play a significant role in communal violence by

sensationalizing events or framing conflicts in ways that inflame tensions. Misinformation can

escalate fears and provoke violent responses (Gibson, 2012).

2.1.4 CYCLES OF VIOLENCE AND CONFLICT ESCALATION

Communal violence often follows a cyclical pattern characterized by escalation and de-

escalation phases. Understanding these cycles is essential for preventing and resolving conflicts.

PHASES OF THE CYCLE OF VIOLENCE

1. Pre-Conflict Phase: Tensions build as grievances accumulate. Social, economic, or political

inequalities become apparent, leading to increased animosity between groups.

2. Triggering Event: An inciting incident or crisis acts as a catalyst, sparking violence. This

event often capitalizes on existing grievances and mistrust between groups (Zartman, 1995).

3. Escalation of Violence: Following the triggering event, violence escalates rapidly as groups

mobilize and retaliate against perceived threats. This phase is marked by widespread violence

and significant casualties (Murshed&Tadjoeddin, 2009).

4. Response and Intervention: Efforts to de-escalate the conflict may occur, involving

mediation, peacekeeping, or negotiations. The success of these interventions can determine

whether the violence subsides or continues (Ramsbothamet al., 2011).

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5. Post-Conflict Phase: In the aftermath of violence, communities may face challenges related

to reconciliation, rebuilding trust, and addressing the root causes of conflict. Without adequate

interventions, the cycle of violence may re-emerge (Miller, 2018).

2.2. TRAUMA AND STRESS

Trauma and stress refer to emotional, psychological, and physical responses to adverse or

threatening experiences. While stress is a natural reaction to challenges or perceived dangers,

trauma is an overwhelming emotional response to extreme stressors such as accidents, violence,

or disasters. Trauma can result from single or multiple incidents and its effects can be immediate

or long-lasting. Understanding the various types of trauma and the body's stress response is

critical in addressing the mental health needs of individuals who have experienced significant

adversity.

2.2.1. PSYCHOLOGICAL TRAUMA: ACUTE AND CHRONIC

Psychological trauma can be classified into two types:

Acute Trauma refers to the emotional shock and distress resulting from a single, specific event,

such as an accident, natural disaster, or assault. Symptoms of acute trauma may include shock,

hyperarousal, and avoidance, and these reactions often subside after the event. However, without

proper support, the impact of acute trauma can persist (Briere& Scott, 2015).

Chronic Trauma occurs due to prolonged exposure to stressful events, such as childhood abuse,

domestic violence, or living in a war zone. Chronic trauma can affect an individual's emotional

regulation, sense of safety, and ability to trust others. Over time, it can lead to severe

psychological conditions, including depression and anxiety (van der Kolk, 2014).

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2.2.2 POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychological condition that can develop after

experiencing or witnessing traumatic events. PTSD is characterized by intrusive memories,

flashbacks, nightmares, and hyperarousal. Individuals with PTSD often experience emotional

numbness and avoid situations that remind them of the trauma. The disorder is marked by an

overactive stress response and difficulty processing and integrating the traumatic experience.

PTSD can emerge after both acute and chronic trauma (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

2.2.3 COMPLEX PTSD IN CONFLICT SETTINGS

Complex PTSD (C-PTSD) is a variant of PTSD that typically develops in response to prolonged

and repeated trauma, especially in contexts like conflict zones, refugee situations, or abusive

environments. While C-PTSD shares core symptoms with PTSD, it also involves difficulties in

emotional regulation, self-identity, and interpersonal relationships. Individuals in conflict

settings often face ongoing threats to their safety, leading to feelings of hopelessness and chronic

fear. This can disrupt their psychological development, particularly if the trauma occurs in

childhood. In these settings, C-PTSD can be exacerbated by displacement, loss of family and

community, and continued exposure to violence (Herman, 1997).

2.2.4. STRESS RESPONSE: FIGHT, FLIGHT, AND FREEZE

When confronted with a threat, the body activates the fight, flight, or freeze response—a survival

mechanism that prepares an individual to either confront the danger, flee from it, or become

immobile in the face of overwhelming threat. These responses are driven by the autonomic

nervous system, which triggers a cascade of hormonal changes to prepare the body for action:

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2.3. RESILIENCE IN CONFLICT

Resilience refers to the ability of individuals and communities to adapt, recover, and thrive in the

face of adversity, including the challenges posed by conflict. Understanding resilience is crucial

in conflict settings, where individuals and communities often encounter prolonged stressors and

trauma. This paper examines individual and communal resilience, identifies factors that

contribute to resilience, and discusses resilience in the context of chronic adversity.

2.3.1. INDIVIDUAL RESILIENCE

Individual resilience is the capacity of a person to cope with and recover from stressful or

traumatic experiences. This concept encompasses various psychological, emotional, and

behavioral traits that enable individuals to withstand adversity.

Key Components of Individual Resilience:

1. Coping Strategies: Resilient individuals employ effective coping mechanisms, such as

problem-solving, emotional regulation, and seeking social support, to navigate stressors

(Folkman&Moskowitz, 2004).

2. Positive Outlook: Maintaining a hopeful and optimistic perspective can foster resilience.

Individuals who can find meaning in adversity are better equipped to adapt (Seligman, 2011).

3. Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to influence outcomes and manage challenges is crucial

for resilience. Higher levels of self-efficacy are associated with better coping in stressful

situations (Bandura, 1997).

4. Social Connections: Strong social networks provide emotional support and practical

assistance, enhancing an individual's resilience in times of crisis (Cohen & Wills, 1985).

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2.3.2 COMMUNAL RESILIENCE

Communal resilience refers to the collective capacity of a community to withstand, adapt to, and

recover from adversity. It is shaped by the social dynamics, resources, and support systems

within the community.

Key Components of Communal Resilience:

1. Social Cohesion: Communities with strong social ties and a sense of belonging foster

resilience. Social cohesion enhances collective efficacy and encourages cooperation during crises

(Aldrich, 2012).

2. Shared Identity: A strong communal identity can unify members, providing a sense of

purpose and belonging that helps communities cope with challenges (Tajfel& Turner, 1986).

3. Resource Availability: Access to resources, including financial support, healthcare, and

education, plays a critical role in communal resilience. Communities that can mobilize resources

effectively are better positioned to respond to adversity (Norris et al., 2008).

4. Leadership and Governance: Effective leadership and governance can facilitate communal

resilience by promoting collaboration, ensuring equitable resource distribution, and addressing

community needs during crises (Fritz & Marks, 2013).

2.3.3 Factors Contributing to Resilience

Numerous factors contribute to both individual and communal resilience, including:

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1. Cultural Context: Cultural beliefs, practices, and values can influence resilience.

Communities with strong cultural traditions often possess greater resilience due to established

support networks and coping mechanisms (Walsh, 2016).

2. Economic Stability: Economic resources can significantly impact resilience. Communities

with stable economies are better equipped to provide support and resources during crises

(Masten, 2001)

3. Education and Awareness: Education plays a vital role in fostering resilience. Knowledge

about coping strategies, mental health, and community resources can empower individuals and

communities to respond effectively to adversity (Reivich&Shatté, 2002).

4. Psychosocial Support: Access to mental health services and psychosocial support can

enhance resilience by providing individuals and communities with the tools and resources

necessary for recovery (Masten& Reed, 2002).

2.3.4 RESILIENCE IN THE CONTEXT OF CHRONIC ADVERSITY

Chronic adversity refers to ongoing stressors that individuals and communities face over an

extended period, such as war, economic hardship, and systemic violence. Resilience in this

context can be challenging but is crucial for survival and recovery.

Characteristics of Resilience in Chronic Adversity:

1. Adaptation and Growth: Individuals and communities often develop new coping strategies

and adaptive behaviors in response to chronic adversity. This growth can lead to improved

resilience over time (Tedeschi& Calhoun, 2004).

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2. Collective Memory and Learning: Communities affected by chronic adversity may develop

a collective memory of past experiences, which can inform future responses and enhance

resilience (Hirschberger, 2018).

3. Emphasis on Relationships: In the face of chronic adversity, the importance of social

relationships becomes more pronounced. Strong social networks can provide essential support

and foster resilience (Masten, 2001).

4. Community Agency: Communities that actively engage in decision-making and problem-

solving during prolonged adversity demonstrate greater resilience. Empowering community

members to take an active role in their recovery fosters a sense of agency and control (Aldrich,

2012).

2.4. COPY MECHANISM

Coping mechanisms are strategies that individuals use to manage and adapt to stressful situations

or emotional distress. These mechanisms can vary based on the individual's personality, social

context, and the nature of the stressor. Effective coping strategies help individuals deal with

challenges in a way that preserves psychological and emotional well-being.

2.4.1 Problem-Focused vs. Emotion-Focused Coping

Coping strategies can be categorized into two primary types: problem-focused coping and

emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused coping involves directly addressing the cause of the

stress, attempting to change or eliminate the stressor itself. For instance, if a person is stressed

due to an overwhelming workload, a problem-focused approach might involve time

management, seeking help, or reducing responsibilities.

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On the other hand, emotion-focused coping centers around managing the emotional response to

the stressor rather than addressing the problem itself. This could involve seeking emotional

support, using relaxation techniques, or reframing the situation to reduce its emotional impact.

While problem-focused coping is typically more effective when the individual has control over

the situation, emotion-focused coping may be more appropriate when the stressor is beyond one's

control (Lazarus &Folkman, 1984).

2.4.2 ADAPTIVE VS. MALADAPTIVE COPING STRATEGIES

Coping strategies are also distinguished by whether they are adaptive or maladaptive. Adaptive

coping strategies are those that lead to healthy, constructive outcomes. They help reduce stress

and improve emotional well-being without causing harm. Examples include seeking social

support, engaging in physical exercise, or employing relaxation techniques like mindfulness

meditation.

Maladaptive coping strategies, however, are those that may provide temporary relief but

ultimately worsen stress or create additional problems. These include behaviors like substance

abuse, avoidance, or denial. While these approaches might provide a short-term escape from

stress, they fail to address the underlying issues and can lead to more severe psychological or

physical consequences (Carver, Scheier, &Weintraub, 1989).

2.4.3 RELIGIOUS AND CULTURAL COPING MECHANISMS

Religious and cultural contexts significantly shape how individuals cope with stress. Religious

coping involves using faith-based practices or beliefs to handle stress. This can include prayer,

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seeking guidance from religious leaders, or viewing the stressor as part of a larger spiritual plan.

For many, religious coping can provide a sense of meaning, community, and comfort in times of

crisis. Studies have shown that religious coping can be a source of resilience, particularly in

cultures where religion plays a central role in daily life (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez,

1998).

Cultural coping mechanisms refer to strategies that are deeply embedded in a community's

traditions and norms. Different cultures may prioritize collective support, family involvement, or

specific rituals when dealing with stress. For example, in collectivist cultures, coping may

involve seeking help from extended family or community members, whereas in individualistic

cultures, coping may lean more toward personal autonomy and self-reliance (Kim, Sherman, &

Taylor, 2008).

2.4.4 COLLECTIVE COPING IN COMMUNAL SETTINGS

In many societies, especially those with a collectivist orientation, collective coping is a common

response to stress. This form of coping involves group-based strategies such as mutual support,

shared decision-making, and collective problem-solving. In communal settings, individuals may

rely on their social networks for emotional support and practical assistance in times of difficulty.

This can help reduce the sense of isolation that often accompanies stress and can promote

feelings of connectedness and shared responsibility.

Collective coping is particularly evident in communities facing large-scale stressors, such as

natural disasters or socio-political upheavals. In these situations, the community as a whole may

come together to share resources, provide emotional comfort, and work toward recovery. The

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success of collective coping depends on the strength of social ties and the presence of a

supportive community structure (Hobfoll, 2001).

2.5. SOCIAL SUPPORT

Social support refers to the emotional, practical, and informational assistance that individuals

receive from theirs social networks. It is essential for maintaining mental and physical health, as

it helps individuals cope with stress, navigate personal and professional challenges, and foster a

sense of belonging. Research has shown that people with strong social support systems tend to

have better health outcomes, higher life satisfaction, and greater resilience in the face of

adversity (Cohen & Wills, 1985).

2.5.1 TYPES OF SOCIAL SUPPORT

Social support can be divided into four key types:

1. Emotional Support: This involves providing care, empathy, love, and trust. It is essential for

alleviating psychological stress, as having someone to confide in can help reduce feelings of

isolation and anxiety. Emotional support often comes from close relationships such as family

members, friends, and romantic partners.

2. Instrumental (Tangible) Support: This includes the provision of material aid or physical

assistance. It could involve offering financial help, lending someone a car, or helping a friend

move to a new home. Instrumental support addresses practical needs and can reduce stress by

directly solving problems.

3. Informational Support: This form of support includes offering advice, guidance, and

information that helps an individual make informed decisions or understand a situation better.

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For instance, a mentor providing career advice or a friend suggesting resources for coping with

stress would be examples of informational support.

4. Appraisal Support: Appraisal support involves offering feedback and encouragement to help

individuals evaluate their circumstances or decisions more accurately. It can boost self-esteem

and aid in personal growth by providing a clearer perspective on situations (House, 1981).

2.5.2 Social Networks and Their Role in Conflict Mechanisms

Social networks are the web of relationships that individuals are embedded in, including friends,

family, colleagues, and acquaintances. These networks play a critical role in how individuals

manage and resolve conflicts. In conflict situations, social networks can provide emotional

support, facilitate mediation, and offer resources for conflict resolution.

Social networks can either mitigate conflict by promoting understanding and cooperation or

intensify it through gossip, competition, or the spreading of misinformation. A strong and

cohesive network, where members are closely bonded, is more likely to offer constructive

solutions to conflicts, while weaker ties in networks can sometimes escalate disagreements

(Granovetter, 1973). Social network analysis also shows that individuals who hold central

positions within a network may influence the resolution of conflicts by acting as mediators or

opinion leaders, helping to de-escalate tension and promote reconciliation.

2.5.3 PEER SUPPORT AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

23
Peer support plays a significant role in the university setting, providing emotional, academic, and

social assistance that helps students manage the pressures of higher education. Peer support

typically comes from fellow students who offer help through study groups, social interactions,

and informal mentorships. This type of support is especially valuable for first-year students

transitioning into university life, as it can ease feelings of isolation and homesickness.

University peer support can take formal and informal forms. Informal peer support involves

interactions among friends and classmates who provide advice, share study materials, and offer

moral support during stressful periods, such as exams. Formal peer support can be organized

through university-run mentorship programs, student counseling services, or peer tutoring

initiatives.

Research suggests that peer support among university students contributes significantly to

academic success, mental health, and the overall university experience. Students with strong peer

support networks tend to have higher levels of motivation, academic engagement, and lower

rates of stress (Dennis, Phinney, &Chuateco, 2005).

2.5.4 INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Institutional support systems refer to the formal structures and resources provided by

educational, professional, or healthcare institutions to support individuals in times of need. In the

context of universities, institutional support includes student counseling services, academic

advising, financial aid offices, career centers, and health services. These services are designed to

address a range of student needs, from mental health care to academic difficulties and financial

challenges.

24
Institutional support is crucial for creating a healthy and supportive environment where

individuals feel they have resources to turn to during challenging times. For example, university

counseling centers provide mental health services to students dealing with anxiety, depression, or

academic stress, while academic advisors help students navigate course selection, academic

progress, and career goals.

The availability and accessibility of institutional support systems have a direct impact on student

well-being and academic success. Universities that invest in robust support systems tend to

report higher rates of student satisfaction, retention, and overall mental health (Tinto, 2006).

Furthermore, institutional support systems can help promote equity by providing resources to

underserved or marginalized student populations, ensuring they have equal access to education

and success.

2.6. ACADEMIC RESILIENCE

Academic resilience refers to a student's ability to effectively adapt and thrive in the face of

academic challenges and setbacks. It involves the capacity to recover from difficulties, remain

focused, and maintain motivation despite adversity. Academic resilience is a key determinant of

long-term educational success, as it enables students to overcome obstacles such as academic

failure, personal hardship, or environmental stressors, without giving up on their educational

goals (Martin & Marsh, 2006).

2.6.1 DEFINITION AND COMPONENTS OF ACADEMIC RESILIENCE

25
Academic resilience can be defined as the process of adapting well to adversity in an academic

setting, which includes bouncing back from challenges and maintaining academic performance

despite difficulties. The components of academic resilience include:

1. Personal Competence: This involves a student’s belief in their own abilities to meet

academic challenges and succeed. A strong sense of self-efficacy fosters resilience by

encouraging students to tackle difficult tasks and persist through challenges.

2. Persistence: Resilient students demonstrate persistence and commitment to their studies even

in the face of failure or setbacks. This involves consistently working toward academic goals

despite difficulties.

3. Positive Coping Strategies: Resilient students use positive coping strategies, such as seeking

help, managing time effectively, and reframing negative experiences, to handle academic stress

and setbacks constructively.

4. Emotional Regulation: The ability to manage and regulate emotions plays a significant role

in academic resilience. Students who can control their stress, anxiety, and frustration are better

able to maintain focus and motivation in challenging situations (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker,

2000).

2.6.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN ADVERSITY

Several factors influence how students perform academically when faced with adversity:

1. Social Support: Having a supportive network of peers, family members, and educators can

significantly boost resilience. Social support provides emotional encouragement, advice, and

resources that help students navigate challenges.

26
2. Self-Efficacy: Students with high self-efficacy are more likely to persevere through difficult

situations because they believe in their capacity to overcome obstacles and achieve success. This

positive mindset fosters resilience and enhances performance (Bandura, 1997).

3. Socioeconomic Factors: Students from disadvantaged backgrounds often face additional

challenges such as lack of access to resources, financial instability, or family responsibilities.

However, those who demonstrate academic resilience find ways to cope with these challenges

and excel academically.

4. School Environment: A positive and supportive school environment that encourages student

engagement, offers academic resources, and promotes emotional well-being plays a critical role

in fostering academic resilience.

2.6.3 THE ROLE OF STUDENTS IN CONFLICT-AFFECTED AREAS

In conflict-affected areas, students often face extreme adversity, including the disruption of

educational systems, loss of family members, displacement, and psychological trauma. Despite

these challenges, resilient students play a pivotal role in rebuilding their communities and

continuing their education. Their determination to learn in the face of conflict is a testament to

their academic resilience and often involves:

1. Maintaining Educational Goals: Students in conflict zones often show remarkable resilience

by staying committed to their educational goals despite the instability around them. They may

attend makeshift schools, study independently, or rely on digital learning platforms to continue

their education.

27
2. Advocacy and Leadership: In many cases, students in conflict-affected areas become

advocates for education, raising awareness about the importance of continuing schooling even

during crises. They may also take on leadership roles in their communities, helping to organize

educational activities or support peers.

3. Adaptability and Resourcefulness: Resilient students in conflict zones are often highly

adaptable, finding alternative ways to continue their studies despite the absence of formal

schooling. This may include self-study, peer learning, or accessing online educational resources

when available (Winthrop & Kirk, 2008).

2.6.4 ACADEMIC MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING IN UNCERTAIN

ENVIRONMENTS

In uncertain environments, such as conflict zones or areas affected by natural disasters,

maintaining academic motivation and setting realistic goals is critical for fostering resilience.

Key strategies include:

1. Intrinsic Motivation: Students who are driven by a personal passion for learning are more

likely to remain resilient in the face of adversity. Intrinsic motivation provides a deeper sense of

purpose that can help students stay focused on their long-term academic goals, even in unstable

circumstances (Ryan &Deci, 2000).

2. Goal Setting: Setting clear, achievable goals helps students maintain focus and motivation in

uncertain environments. Short-term goals provide immediate targets that give students a sense of

accomplishment, while long-term goals keep them oriented toward their broader aspirations.

28
3. Flexible Thinking: In uncertain environments, students who demonstrate flexible thinking

can adjust their goals and strategies as situations change. This adaptability is a key component of

resilience, as it allows students to shift focus without losing motivation (Dweck, 2006).

4. External Rewards and Support: In addition to intrinsic motivation, external rewards such as

scholarships, community recognition, or family encouragement can also play a role in sustaining

academic motivation. Support from institutions or non-governmental organizations can provide

resources and structure to help students stay on track.

2.7. THEORETICAL REVIEW

Theories of violence come from various disciplines such as psychology, sociology, criminology,

and [Link] theories provide diverse perspectives on the origins of violence, highlighting the

complexity of violent behavior. From environmental and social influences to biological and psychological

factors, these theories offer insights into why people may engage in violence.

Below are detailed descriptions of major theories of violence.

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Initially proposed by Dollard et al. (1939), this theory suggests

that aggression is the result of frustration, which arises when an individual's path to a desired goal is

blocked. Berkowitz (1989) later revised the theory, incorporating the idea that frustration produces anger,

which leads to aggression under certain conditions.

Social Learning Theory:Proposed by Albert Bandura (1977), social learning theory emphasizes that

violent behavior is learned through the observation of others. Individuals, especially children, imitate the

behavior of role models (e.g., parents, peers, media figures), particularly when such behavior is rewarded

or goes unpunished.

29
General Strain Theory:Robert Agnew (1992) developed General Strain Theory (GST) to explain how

individuals facing strain or stress (e.g., the inability to achieve socially approved goals) may turn to crime

or violence as a coping mechanism. The strain could be financial, emotional, or social, and violence may

be an outlet for the frustration caused by these pressures.

Routine Activity Theory: Proposed by Cohen and Felson (1979), this theory explains that violence

occurs when three elements converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a

capable guardian. This theory focuses on how everyday activities and the environment contribute to

opportunities for violent behavior.

Subculture of Violence Theory:Developed by Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967), this theory suggests

that certain subcultures hold values that are conducive to violent behavior. In these subcultures, violence

is seen as an acceptable and even necessary way to solve problems and gain respect.

Bio-psychosocial Model of Violence: The bio-psychosocial model integrates biological,

psychological, and social factors to explain violent behavior. It suggests that genetic predispositions,

neurobiological influences, mental health issues, and environmental factors interact to increase the risk of

violent behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology Theory:This theory argues that violence has evolutionary roots, having

been adaptive in ancestral environments for survival and reproduction. It posits that aggression and

violence have been selected over time because they provided certain reproductive advantages.

Biological Theories:Biological theories of violence focus on the role of genetics, brain structures,

neurochemistry, and hormones in influencing violent behavior. Research shows that certain

biologicafactors, such as testosterone levels and abnormalities in brain areas like the amygdala, can

predispose individuals to aggression.

30
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

31
 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it, we study various

steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the

logic behind them.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design allows for efficient application and locating of research instrument such

as simple percentage of hypothesis. It focuses on population of the study, sample size and

sampling techniques, instrument of data collection and methods of data collection. The cross-

sectional survey research design was adopted by the researcher for the purpose of this study. This

is. Because the cross-sectional survey research allowed, the researcher to triangulate which gives

a holistic understanding of a phenomenon under investigation and it also save time, and the cost

is also relatively less. It also enables the researcher to use variety of instruments at the same time

to collect information from a relatively large population.

3.1.1. RESEARCH SETTING

Plateau state university is located in Bokkos local government area of plateau state, the
university is surrounded by numerous villages both far and near. Some students are staying in off
campus while some are staying on campus. This research is basically on students residing within
the university campus.

3.2. POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The population of any research is the total number of students from which the researcher
collects data. With respect to this research, the population of the study is 250 of Plateau
university students.
3.3. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND SAMPLE SIZE
In a bit to reduce the size of the respondents to a manageable one and obtain information
from them, and in order to determine the appropriate sample size for this study, a non-probability
method of sample size determination was adopted. The fishbowl method is adopted and used in

32
the selection of respondents for the area of study (Plateau state university, Bokkos). The criteria
for the selection are base on the number of students around the university campus.
3.4. INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION

The data collection for this study comes from two sources which are:
1) Quantitative methods: The quantitative instrument that was employed by the researcher
was the questionnaire which he used to gather information from a sample size
Qualitative method: The qualitative instrument that is to be employ by the researcher is
the in-depth interview: The in-depth interview guide is a list of questions or themes that
guide the discussion which is moderate by the researcher. The researcher through note
taking and recording device taking down the responses of the respondents who were to be
interview.

3.5. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

This research adopts both the qualitative and quantitative method of data collection. The
quantitative instrument which is use by the researcher to collect data from his respondents in
study to collect information from his respondents is the questionnaire. The researcher will
administer questionnaire to a sample of one hundred respondents to gather information about the
topic under investigation.
3.5.1. SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is thé building block of any research work being carried out. Awotunde and
Ugodulunwa, 2004): research methods in education jos. It is through it that necessary facts and
information are being gathered before these are written.
3.6. METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
The researcher will use statistical package for social science (SPSS) as the statistics for
analyzing the data, structured questionnaire will be use. The quantitative data that will be gather
will generate into frequencies and percentages in the tables and then descriptive interpretation.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

34
 This chapter contains the analysis of collected data, answered research questions of

hypotheses and the discussion of findings. The tables and explanations that follows represents

the results of the study.

4.1. Results

Demographic characteristics of respondents

The following represent the demographic characteristics of respondent in this study

From the study, the information was gathered through the uses of structured questionnaire and in-

depth interview: both quantitative and qualitative methods. The researcher administer 250

questionnaires to his respondents.

The quantitative data from gathered through questionnaires was analyzed using statistical

package of social science (pass). A total of 250 were analyzed using frequency and simple percentage

tables

Table 4.1. Demographic characteristics of respondents base on sex.

S/NOptions Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

1 Male 115 46.0

2 Female 135 54.0

TOTAL 250 100

Table 4.1, represent the distribution of the study participants or respondents according to their

sex. Out of 250 respondents, the above table indicates 247(46.0%) are males while 288(54.0%)

are females, that is to say that the percentage of males in the research is less than that of the

females, this is in large part due to the fact that majority of the respondents who are present and

ready to fill the questionnaire at the course of administering it are females.

35
Table 4.2: Distribution of participants according to their age group.

S/N Options Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

1 16 – 20 years 76 30.4

2 21 – 25 years 89 35.6

3 26 – 30 years 53 21.2

4 Above 30 years 32 12.8

TOTAL 250 100

Table 3, above represent the distribution of the study participants or respondents

according to their age group. From the table above, out of 250 respondents, 76 respondents

(30.4%) felt within the age group of 16-20, 89 respondents (51.8%) fall within the age group of

21-25, 53 respondents(21.2%) and 32 respondents (12.8%) fall within the age group 26 and

above.

A critical look at the above table indicates that mare of the respondents in this research

are the youth who felt within the age group of 21 – 25 and occupy 35.6% of the sample size. The

reason may not be far from the fact that most students occupy the greater part of the university

population and they stand to have sound knowledge and understanding of conflict situations,

they are also the major actors interms of conflict because they are very energetic.

Table [Link] of participants according to their faculty in university.

1. Faculty of the respondents

S/N Options Frequency (n) Percentage(%)

1 Faculty of Natural and applied sciences 52 20.8

2 Faculty of Social Sciences 37 14.8

36
3 Faculty of Management Sciences 69 27.6

4 Faculty of Arts and humanity 57 22.8

5 Faculty Education 35 14.0

TOTAL 250 100

Table [Link] of participants according to their level in university.

2. Year of study of the respondents

S/N Year of study Frequency (n) Percentage(%)

1 First year 57 22.8

2 Second year 66 26.4

3 Third year 52 20.8

4 Fourth year 75 30.0

TOTAL 250 100

From the table, the respondents are almost equally distributed in the levels to get information needed

base experience of the students both new students and old students. 100 level students were 57

students(22.8%) whom participated in the research, 200 level students were 66 students (26.4%), 300

level students were 52 students (20.8%) and 400 level students were 75 students (30%) in that regards.

Table 4.5. Distribution of participants according to their residential status

S/N Options Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

1 On-campus 115 46.0

37
 2 Off-campus 135 54.0

TOTAL 250 100

The distribution of student residents between off-campus and on-campus housing at Plateau State

University (PLASU) typically depends on the availability of accommodation on the university

campus as well as external factors such as the cost of living, availability of private housing, and

personal preferences. During our research, 115 respondents (46.0%) are residing on-campus and

135 respondents (54.0%) are residing ooff-campus.

SECTION B: PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT OF COMMUNAL VIOLENCE

Table [Link] of participants according to been directly exposed to communal violence

in or around Plateau State University.

S/N Options Frequency (n) Percentage (%)

1 Yes 189 75.6

38
2 No 061 24.4

TABLE 250 100

The data table in above shows that plateau university has been exposed to communal violence

with 189 respondents(75.6%)directly exposed to communal violence in or around Plateau State

University, like in other regions prone to conflict, such communal conflict can have significant

psychological, social, and academic repercussions on individuals and the university community

at large. Plateau State, historically known for communal and ethnic conflicts, often sees tensions

escalate into violence, affecting surrounding communities, including educational institutions like

Plateau State University. Contrary this facts was observed with only 61 students(24.4%) having

contrary views, this may come from first year students or students staying on-campus because of

little experience or good security within the university on-campus.

Table [Link] of participants according totheir experience of communal violence

during their time at Plateau State University

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Never 000 00.0

2 Once 002 00.8

3 2-3 times 081 32.4

39
4 More than 3 times 167 66.8

TOTAL 250 100

The frequency of students at Plateau State University experiencing communal violence varies

depending on the broader political and ethnic tensions in Plateau State. The state has historically

been prone to periodic outbursts of communal violence, primarily driven by ethnic, religious, and

land disputes. While these conflicts may not occur constantly, their cyclical nature means that

students may experience violence at least once during their time at the university. With 167

students(66.8%) disclosed experiencing more than 3 times communal violence during their stay

in the university. None of the students(0%) respond to not experiencing communal conflict,

while 81 students(32.4%) disclosed experiencing 2-3 times communal violence. 2 students

(0.8%) responded to only experiencing communal violence once. From the above analysis, We

observed that plateau state university experience communal violence most often or the school is

exposed to frequent communal violence.

40
Table [Link] of participants according to the extent communal violence affected the

emotional well-being of students.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Not at all 00 00.0

2 slightly 10 04.0

3 Moderately 15 06.0

4 Significantly 145 58.0

5 Extremely 80 32.0

TOTAL 250 100

Communal violence has significantly affected the emotional well-being of students, staff, and the

wider community at Plateau State University. The impact extends across several dimensions,

influencing mental health, academic performance, and the overall campus environment. Most of

the responses were 145 students(58.0%) significantly testify being affected emotionally, while

80 students(32.0%) stated been extremely affected by communal violence. 10 students (04.0%)

attested been affected slightly by the conflicts and 15 students(06.0%) confirmed been affected

moderately. Due to this finding above, the constant threat of violence, combined with actual

experiences of conflict, creates a climate of fear and uncertainty that can deeply disrupt the

emotional well-being of students in the university.

41
Table [Link] of participants according to experiencing any symptoms after being

exposed to communal violence:

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Anxiety 112 45.0

2 Fear 112 45.0
3 Depression 112 45.0
4 Insomnia 200 80.0
5 Flash backs 200 80.0
6 Difficult concentration 200 80.0
7 Irritability 075 45.0
8 Lost interest in activities 112 45.0
9 None of the above 000 00.0

Experiencing symptoms after being exposed to communal violence, particularly within an

educational environment like Plateau State University, is not uncommon. The emotional,

psychological, and even physical toll of such violence can manifest in various ways. For students

and staff directly or indirectly affected by communal conflict, the symptoms can range from

psychological distress to behavioral changes, affecting both personal and academic life.

200students(80%) experience difficulty in concentration, flashblacks and insomnia while 45%

students experience depression, anxiety, fear and lost of interest in their school activities. Few

students 3% experience irritability due to extreme physical experience of communal violence.

Table [Link] of participants perception of feeling unsafe on campus due to violence

in nearby communities

42
 S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Never 00 00.0

2 Rarely 02 00.8

3 Sometimes 10 04.0

4 Often 25 10.0

5 Always 213 85.2

TOTAL 250 100

The frequency with which students feel unsafe on campus at Plateau State University due

to communal violence in nearby communities varies depending on the sociopolitical climate and

the recurrence of violent outbreaks in Plateau State. However, Most students(85.2%) disclosed

that they felt always unsafe with 10% students felt often unsafe, while 4% students felt

sometimes unsafe and 0.8% students rarely felt unsafe. There are several factors that contribute

to students often feeling unsafe, communal violence been the major caused of such feelings

amongst the students.

43
Table [Link] of participants rating the level of psychological distress

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 No distress 00 00.0

2 Milddistress 02 01.0

3 Moderate distress 10 04.0

4 Severe distress 70 28.0

5 Extreme distress 168 68.0

TOTAL 250 100

Communal violence can generally induce high levels of distress, particularly anxiety,

fear, and worry. Rating the level of psychological distress students at Plateau State University

have experienced due to communal violence require specific empirical data, such as surveys or

interviews from the students themselves. However, we estimate based on similar situations

involving communal violence and its impact on university students in conflict areas, With 168

students (68.0%) indicating 5 on the scale and 70 students (28.0%) indicating 4 on scale, while

10 students (4.0%) indicate 3 on scale and 2 students (1.0%) indicating 2 on scale, reflecting

significant distress. Factors like personal safety concerns, displacement, trauma from witnessing

violence, and uncertainty about the future can contribute to this high level of psychological

impact.

44
Table [Link] of participants that communal violence affected their relationships with

friends, family, or classmates.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Yes 200 80.0

2 No 50 20.0

TOTAL 250 100

In Plateau State University, such violence, impacts relationships among students, their

families, and friends in a variety of ways with 200 students(80.0%) agreeing with the above in

the table and only 50 students (20.0%) having contrary views. Such ways of which communal

violence affect relationships include: tension in family relationship, fear and psychological

trauma. Communal violence in Plateau State, as in many other areas affected by ethnic and

religious conflict, has significant social and psychological consequences.

45
Table [Link] of participants according to how communal violence affected their

social relationships

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Increased isolation 189 75.6

2 Difficulty trusting others 189 75.6

3 Conflicts with friends or family 61 24.4

4 Reduced social interactions 61 24.4

5 None of the above 00 00.0

TOTAL 250 100

The experience of violence in communities has cause anxiety and fear among students,

with 189 students (75.6%) confirming to both Increased isolation, Difficulty trusting others and

61 students(24.4%) stating Conflicts with friends or family, Reduced social interactions,

particularly they feel that the conflict could spill into the university environment. While stating,

this heightened sense of insecurity can make it difficult for students to feel safe or focus on their

academics. Violence in surrounding communities often leads to disruption of academic

schedules, forcing the university to close or suspend activities. These interruptions create tension

among students, especially when they feel they are losing academic time or falling behind in

their studies.

46
Table [Link] of participants perception on how has communal violence affected

their academic performance.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Yes 245 98.0

2 No 005 02.0

TOTAL 250 100

Communal violence in Plateau State, Nigeria, has had profound effects on the social

relationships of students at Plateau State University (PLASU). This violence, often rooted in

ethnic, religious, and political tensions, has led to several social challenges for students. 245

students (98.0%) agreeing that communal violence has affected their academic performance,

while 5 students(2.0%) students having contrary views.

47
48
Table [Link] of participants on what ways has their academic performance been

impacted.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Reduced concentration in class 148 59.2

2Missed lectures due to violence or fear of violence 48 19.2

3 Poor performance in exams 30 12.0

4 Delayed submission of assignments 24 09.6

5 None of the above 00 00.0

TOTAL 250 100

The experience of violence in communities can cause anxiety and fear among students,

particularly if they feel that the conflict could spill into the university environment. This

heightened sense of insecurity has made it difficult for students to feel safe or focus on their

academics. 148 students(59.2%) stating that communal violence has cause reduced concentration

in class, 48 students(19.2% ) reporting missed lectures due to violence or fear of violence, 30

students(12.0%) reported poor performance in exams and 24 students(9.6%) delayed submission

of assignments etc.

49
Table [Link] of participants missing classes due to communal violence-related

disturbance.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Never 9 03.6

2 Rarely 0 00.0

3 Sometimes 98 39.2

4 Often 139 55.6

5 Always 4 01.6

TOTAL 250 100

The frequency with which students miss lectures at Plateau State University (PLASU) due to

communal violence can vary depending on the severity and timing of the violence. However, 98

students(39.2%) indicated sometimes miss class activities, 139 students(55.6%) indicating often

affected, on 9 students(3.6%) reporting never missing a class due to communal violence and with

4 students(1.6%) reporting always missing lectures due to communal violence. based on patterns

observed in conflict-affected regions, there are several general factors that contribute to lecture

absenteeism among students.

50
Table [Link] of participants on how does closure of the university due to communal

violence affect the academic progress

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Delays in completing semester 85 34.0

2 Uncertainty in academic planning 59 23.6

3 Disrupt academic rhythm 106 42.4

4 No effects 00 00.0

TOTAL 250 100

The closure of Plateau State University in Bokkos due to communal violence can

severely affect the academic progress of students with 106 students (42.4%) found out in our

research to have been directly affected. When the university shuts down, all academic activities,

such as lectures, assessments, and exams, are suspended. This disruption leads to delays in the

completion of academic semester with about 34.0% students affected , extending the time

required for students to graduate and disrupt the academic rhythm of students.

For final-year students, university closure can delay the completion of their projects,

thesis submissions, and final exams, affecting their transition to post-graduate life or

employment. Graduates waiting to collect their certificates might face delays, impacting their job

prospects or further studies.

51
Table [Link] of participants on what strategies use to cope with the stress and

trauma caused by communal violence

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Talking to friends and family 043 17.2

2 Seeking counseling or professional help 054 21.6

3 Praying or engaging in religious activities 121 48.4

4 Avoiding conversations about violence 025 10.0

5 Distracting yourself with other activities 006 02.4

6 Using social media as an outlet 001 00.4

7 None of the above 000 00.0

TOTAL 250 100

Students in Plateau State University, Bokkos, like in other regions affected by communal

violence, often face significant stress and trauma due to the instability and conflict in their

environment. To cope with these challenges, they employ various strategies, which can be

broadly categorized into the following:

Peer Support: Students form close-knit groups with their friends and peers, offering

emotional and psychological support. They often share their experiences and provide a safe

space for mutual encouragement.

Family and Community Support: 43 students (17.2%) rely on their families or

community members, either by seeking advice, financial assistance, or simply reassurance from

loved ones during times of crisis and 54 students (21.6%) preferring seeking professional help.

52
 Prayer and Worship: Given the religious significance in Plateau State, 121 students

(48.4%) turn to their faith, attending religious services, praying, and engaging in religious study

or fellowship for comfort and [Link] Counseling: Religious leaders and counselors

often provide moral guidance and emotional relief to students, helping them frame their

experiences within a spiritual context.

53
Table [Link] of participants on how effective do students feel their coping strategies

are in managing stress caused by communal violence

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Not effective 045 18.0

2 Somewhat effective 133 53.2

3 Effective 040 16.0

4 Very effective 025 10.0

5 Extremely effective 007 02.8

TOTAL 250 100

The effectiveness of coping strategies employed by students at Plateau State University,

Bokkos, in managing stress caused by communal violence often varies based on individual

experiences, the severity of the violence, and the availability of resources. However, some

general observations can be made about how students feel about these strategies with 133

students(53.2%) students somewhat effective with scoping strategies. Somestudents(18%)

express the need for more formal resources, such as mental health services, trauma-informed

counseling, and safety measures, to improve the effectiveness of coping strategies. In the absence

of these, students may feel that they are "just surviving" rather than truly healing from the trauma

caused by communal violence.

These reflections suggest that while coping strategies offer some relief, the effectiveness

often depends on the availability of external support, access to resources, and the severity of the

violence students are exposed to.

54
Table [Link] of students onhow have they ever sought professional help or counseling

services to cope with the effects of communal violence

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Yes 200 80

2 No 50 20

TOTAL 250 100

Yes, some students at Plateau State University, Bokkos, have sought professional help or

counseling services to cope with the effects of communal violence with 200 students (80%)

affirming while 50 students(20%) have not seek counseling. However, the extent to which

students access these services varies due to several factorsIn conclusion, while some students at

Plateau State University, Bokkos, do seek professional help or counseling services to cope with

the effects of communal violence, there are challenges related to availability, cultural attitudes,

and awareness. Those who do access these services generally find them beneficial, though the

reach of such support needs to be expanded to meet the needs of the broader student population.

55
Table [Link] of participants on any reasons for not seeking professional help.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 I don’t think I need it 068 27.2

2 I don’t know where to find help 136 54.4
3 I am afraid of being stigmatized 025 10.0
4 It is too expensive 021 08.4
5 Others 000 00.0
TOTAL 250 100

There are several reasons why students at Plateau State University, Bokkos, and similar

settings may not seek professional help after experiencing communal violence with 68

students(27.2%) and 25 students(10.0%) opted not to seek help. Most students (54.4%) also

don’t know how to get help. These factors can be grouped into cultural, logistical, psychological,

and systemic challenges.

Fear of Judgment: In many communities, seeking mental health support or counseling is

often stigmatized. Students may fear being judged, labeled as "mentally unstable," or seen as

weak if they admit to needing help. This stigma can discourage them from reaching out, even

when they are struggling.

Cultural Beliefs about Mental Health: Some cultural beliefs downplay the importance of

mental health services, instead prioritizing traditional healing methods, spiritual solutions, or

stoicism. This can lead to a reluctance to seek professional mental health support, as it is

sometimes viewed as unnecessary or inappropriate.

56
Table [Link] of participants on what kind of support do students need to cope with

the psychological and social impact of communal violence.

S/N Options Number of Participants Percentage (%)

1 Access to free counseling service 023 09.2

2 Peer support group 013 05.2
3 Workshop on trauma and coping 027 10.8
4 Increased security measures 165 66.0
5 Regular communication 049 19.6
6 Others 000 00.0
TOTAL 250 100

To effectively cope with the psychological and social impact of communal violence,

students need a comprehensive support system that addresses both their mental health needs and

the broader social challenges they face. To cope with the psychological and social impacts of

communal violence, students need a multi-faceted support system that includes mental health

services, social support networks, academic flexibility, physical safety measures, spiritual

guidance, and financial assistance. 165 students (66.0%) mentioning physical security as the

most need support. Addressing these needs holistically can help students recover from trauma,

rebuild resilience, and thrive despite the challenges posed by violence in their communities.

57
4.23: Response of participants on measures the university take to protect students and minimize

the impact of communal violence.

The university can take a proactive role in protecting students and minimizing the impact

of communal violence by implementing enhanced security measures, offering robust

psychological and social support, fostering peacebuilding and inter-group dialogue, providing

academic flexibility, and collaborating with external organizations. Through these measures, the

university can not only safeguard its students but also help create a more peaceful and resilient

community.

4.24: Response of participants onany suggestions regarding how students can be better

supported in times of communal violence.

In addition to providing immediate safety, mental health care, and academic flexibility, Plateau
State University, Bokkos, should invest in long-term strategies that promote peacebuilding,
resilience, and a culture of non-violence. By fostering a supportive environment and empowering
students to actively engage in conflict prevention and trauma recovery, the university can help
mitigate the lasting effects of communal violence and build a more harmonious campus
community.

4.3 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS EXPOSED TO

COMMUNAL VIOLENCE AT PLATEAU STATE UNIVERSITY

Communal violence has been a significant issue in Plateau State, Nigeria, affecting various

communities, including students at Plateau State University. Understanding the socio-

demographic characteristics of students exposed to communal violence is crucial for designing

interventions that address their unique needs and challenges. These characteristics can provide

insights into how different groups of students experience and cope with violence, as well as the

social and economic factors that may shape their resilience or vulnerability.

58
Age: The student population at Plateau State University is predominantly composed of young

adults, typically aged between 18 and 25 years. This age group is particularly vulnerable to the

psychological and emotional effects of communal violence, as they are in a critical phase of

identity formation, social development, and academic progression. Younger students may face

heightened anxiety, fear, and insecurity during periods of violence, affecting their mental health

and academic performance.

Gender :Gender plays a significant role in how students experience communal violence. Female

students may be more vulnerable to sexual violence, harassment, or exploitation during periods

of conflict. On the other hand, male students might be more likely to be involved in direct

confrontations or targeted for recruitment by violent groups. The gendered nature of violence

means that both male and female students may require different types of support, such as gender-

sensitive counseling and protection services.

Ethnicity: Plateau State is home to diverse ethnic groups, and ethnic identity is a key factor in

communal violence. Students at Plateau State University come from various ethnic backgrounds,

and their experiences of violence may be shaped by their ethnic affiliations. Ethnic minority

students or those from groups involved in the conflict may face discrimination, stigmatization, or

direct violence. Ethnic identity can also influence the level of social support students receive

from their communities and peers, as some groups may be more marginalized than others.

59
Coping Mechanisms: Students from different socio-demographic backgrounds may adopt

various coping mechanisms to deal with the trauma of communal violence. Some may rely on

religious or ethnic communities for support, while others may turn to counseling services, peer

groups, or even avoidance strategies such as withdrawing from social interactions.

60
4.2 DISCUSSION
The psychosocial impact of communal violence on students staying on campus can be

devastating, affecting their mental health, social relationships, academic performance, sense of

safety, affecting their mental, emotional, and social well-being. The fear and trauma caused by

exposure to violence can lead to long-term psychological harm, disrupt campus unity, and create

divisions among students. Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach,

including mental health support, security measures, and fostering a more inclusive and resilient

campus environment.

Students staying on university campuses who are exposed to communal violence face

significant psychosocial challenges, and their coping mechanisms can vary depending on

individual resilience, access to resources, and the campus environment. These coping

mechanisms may range from adaptive, healthy strategies to maladaptive behaviors that may

hinder their recovery.

Students often turn to friends or peers for emotional support during times of communal

violence. Sharing experiences, expressing fears, and receiving validation from others who are

facing similar threats can reduce feelings of isolation and help students feel [Link]

students may rely on their family members, either through regular communication or seeking

refuge with them if possible. Family can offer a sense of security and provide emotional

guidance during times of uncertainty.

Organized groups on campus, such as student organizations, religious groups, or cultural

societies, may become a refuge for students, offering collective support, solidarity, and a sense of

belonging amidst the external [Link] students exposed to communal violence seek

61
professional counseling services provided by the university. Campus counselors can help

students process their emotions, manage trauma, and develop effective coping strategies.

Universities should offer workshops or mental health programs aimed at helping students

build resilience, manage stress, and develop coping skills. Students may use these services to

learn more about mindfulness, stress management, and relaxation [Link] that there

are safety measures in place, such as increased campus security or emergency protocols, can

provide students with a sense of reassurance. Some students may take an active role in

participating in these measures, such as attending safety briefings or engaging with campus

security services.

62
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 SUMMARY OF MAJOR FINDING

This research wok talked about Assessing the Psycho-Social Impact of Communal Violence

Exposure on Students in Plateau State University, Bokkos, with the aim of proffering so

recommendation that can help resolve the issue. A total numbers of two hundred and fifty

students were used for the study.

The summary of the major findings of this work or study are subsequently discussed:-

1 The researcher found out that there is ethnic and religious tensions at Plateau State

university: The university community is home to a diverse population of ethnic

groups, with tensions often arising between predominantly Christian ethnic groups

like theMushere, Ron, Kulere, Tarok, Mwaghavul, Ngas, Berom, Anaguta, and

Afizere students and predominantly Muslim Fulani herders. These groups have

different cultural, religious, and economic practices, leading to frequent clashes.

2 The researcher found out that there is farmer-herder conflicts within the university

community: The competition over land and resources is a significant driver of

violence. Bokkos, being in a rural setting, sees conflicts between local farmers and

Fulani herders over grazing land and water, especially as population pressures and

environmental changes shrink available resources.

3 The researcher found out that there isPolitical and Economic Marginalization: Some

ethnic groups feel politically marginalized, leading to tensions over who controls

local community, land, and economic opportunities. Allegations of favoritism in

63
 employment, resource distribution, and political appointments can spark violent

confrontations.

4 The researcher found out that there is land ownership control: Land is central to the

identities and livelihoods of most of indigene in the university community. Disputes

over land ownership and boundaries are a frequent cause of conflict, especially when

different groups claim historical rights to the same land.

5 The researcher found out that there is weak law enforcement within university

communities: The inability of law enforcement agencies to effectively prevent or

respond to violence exacerbates the problem. This creates an atmosphere of impunity,

where communities take matters into their own hands through retaliatory attacks.

5.2 CONCLUSION

The psychosocial impact of students staying on a university campus and being exposed to

communal violence can be profound, affecting their mental, emotional, and social well-being.

Communal violence, particularly if it takes place near or within a campus, disrupts the sense of

safety and community that is essential for students’ academic and personal development.

1. Increased Anxiety and Fear. Students on campus may live in a heightened state of anxiety,

fearing for their safety and well-being. The unpredictability of violence can cause

hypervigilance, where students feel the need to always be on guard, affecting their ability to

relax and focus. Also regular academic routines and social activities may be interrupted, further

increasing stress levels. With the threat of violence looming, everyday activities like attending

classes, using campus facilities, or even moving around campus can become anxiety-inducing.

64
2. Psychological Trauma. Students witnessing violence or being aware of its proximity can lead

to trauma. Even students not directly involved may experience secondary trauma by hearing

about or witnessing acts of violence. This can manifest as flashbacks, nightmares, and intrusive

thoughts related to the events.

3. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Prolonged exposure to communal violence can lead

to PTSD, where students might struggle with recurring anxiety, emotional numbness, and

difficulty sleeping, concentrating, or feeling safe.

3. Impact on Academic Performance. The stress caused by communal violence can impair

cognitive functions, making it difficult for students to concentrate on their studies, complete

assignments, or participate in classroom discussions. Chronic stress may lead to memory issues

and reduced academic [Link] of violence can lead to absenteeism, avoidance of social

interaction, and disengagement from educational activities. Students may feel demotivated to

attend classes or engage in learning when they are consumed by fear or trauma.

4. Social Fragmentation and Mistrust. Communal violence often divides communities along

religious, ethnic, or political lines. On a university campus, this can fracture the sense of

community, as students may begin to mistrust those from different backgrounds or avoid

interacting with peers who belong to groups involved in the violence.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following are some recommendation which are delivered from the findings of this

research work and from responses of the respondents; The below listed recommendation is

65
properly followed and observe, it will help reduce or resolve the Psycho-Social Impact of

Communal Violence Exposure on Students in Plateau State University , Bokkos.

1. The government should provide or develop campus counselors, workshops, campus

securityservices and mental health programs should be provided to help students process their

emotions, manage trauma, and develop effective coping strategies. Students exposed to

communal violence should seek professional counseling services provided by the university.

2. Students should often turn to friends, family members or peers for emotional support during

times of communal violence. Sharing experiences, expressing fears, and receiving validation

from others who are facing similar threats can reduce feelings of isolation.

3. One of the primary coping mechanisms for students is to avoid areas of violence or tension.

By staying within safer areas of the campus or restricting their movement, they attempt to reduce

exposure to danger and minimize anxiety.

4. Students should respond to communal violence by becoming actively involved in advocacy or

activism. They may participate in peaceful protests, organize awareness campaigns, or engage in

dialogues, campus discussions, peace-building initiatives, or interfaith dialogues to address the

causes and consequences of violence. This can help them regain a sense of agency and purpose.

5. Students should turn to spiritual practices such as prayer, meditation, or religious rituals to

cope with communal violence. These practices can offer comfort, a sense of hope, and emotional

stability amidst chaos.

66
5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Research on assessing the psycho-social impact of communal violence exposure on university

students faces several limitations:

Limited Generalizability: Often, studies focus on specific regions or universities that have been

impacted by communal violence, which may not represent the broader student population. This

limits the generalizability of the findings to other contexts.

Small Sample Sizes: Many studies rely on small sample sizes due to the sensitive nature of the

topic, making it difficult to draw robust conclusions or apply findings to larger populations.

Self-report Bias: Studies often use self-report measures (surveys, interviews) to assess the

psychological and social impacts. This introduces bias, as students may underreport or overreport

their experiences due to fear, shame, or desire for social approval.

Complexity of Variables: Communal violence impacts individuals differently based on factors

like ethnicity, religion, gender, socioeconomic status, or prior trauma. It is difficult to isolate and

measure the specific effects of communal violence exposure from these other variables.

Longitudinal Gaps: There are often gaps in longitudinal research that tracks the long-term

effects of violence exposure. Most studies focus on short-term effects, missing the long-lasting

psycho-social consequences, such as PTSD or changes in social behavior.

67
Ethical Concerns: Research on communal violence is ethically sensitive, as probing the

experiences of trauma survivors can retraumatize them. Researchers must navigate these

challenges carefully, which can limit the depth of inquiry.

Underreporting: Students who have been exposed to violence may avoid participating in such

studies due to stigma, fear of reprisals, or a general reluctance to relive traumatic experiences.

This underreporting can skew results.

Cultural Sensitivity: Many studies lack cultural sensitivity in interpreting psychological

responses to communal violence. Different cultural contexts can shape how individuals process

trauma and social distress, which may not be fully captured in conventional psychological

assessments.

Temporal and Political Factors: The timing of the study (relative to when the violence

occurred) and the prevailing political environment can influence students' willingness to

participate, as well as the nature of their responses.

Methodological Limitations: There is often a reliance on cross-sectional studies that provide a

snapshot in time rather than capturing the evolving impact of violence exposure. Additionally,

inconsistent or unclear operational definitions of communal violence and psycho-social impact

can hinder the comparison of findings across studies.

These limitations highlight the challenges of studying the psycho-social impact of communal

violence on university students, indicating the need for more comprehensive, methodologically

rigorous, and culturally sensitive approaches.

68
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 PLATEAU STATE UNIVERSITY, BOKKOS
FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
5. Department of
Sociology

Date:

Dear Respondent,

LETTER OF INTRODUCTION

I am ChuwangTeyeiGyang, a student of the Department of Sociology, currently pursuing a Bachelor of

Science (BSc.) degree at Plateau State University, Bokkos. As part of my academic requirements, I am
conducting a research study titled:
“Assessing the Psycho-Social Impact of Communal Violence Exposure on Students in Plateau State
University: A Study of Plateau State University, Bokkos.”

The purpose of this study is to understand how exposure to communal violence has affected the
psychological and social well-being of students. Your participation in this study is highly valuable, and I
kindly request that you complete the attached questionnaire. Your responses will provide critical insights
that may contribute to the development of strategies to better support students affected by violence.

Please be assured that your participation is entirely voluntary, and your responses will remain strictly
anonymous and confidential. No identifying information will be collected or linked to your answers, and
all data will be used solely for academic purposes.

Thank you for your time and cooperation.

Sincerely,

Department of Sociology
Plateau State University, Bokkos

73
APPENDIX

Survey Research Questionnaire

Section A: Demographic Information

1. Gender
☐ Male
☐ Female
2. Age
☐ 16–20 years
☐ 21–25 years
☐ 26–30 years
☐ Above 30 years
3. Faculty
☐ Faculty of Arts
☐ Faculty of Social Sciences
☐ Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences
☐ Faculty of Management Sciences
☐ Faculty of Education
4. Year of Study
☐ First year
☐ Second year
☐ Third year
☐ Fourth year
☐ Fifth year (if applicable)
5. Residential Status
☐ On-campus
☐ Off-campus

Section B: Psychological Impact of Communal Violence

(This section addresses your emotional and mental well-being as a result of exposure to communal
violence.)

6. Have you ever been directly exposed to communal violence in or around Plateau State
University?
☐ Yes
☐ No
7. How often have you experienced communal violence during your time at Plateau State
University?
☐ Never
☐ Once

74
 ☐ 2–3 times
☐ More than 3 times
8. To what extent has communal violence affected your emotional well-being?
☐ Not at all
☐ Slightly
☐ Moderately
☐ Significantly
☐ Extremely
9. Please indicate if you have experienced any of the following symptoms after being exposed
to communal violence:
(Check all that apply)
☐ Anxiety
☐ Fear
☐ Depression
☐ Insomnia (Difficulty sleeping)
☐ Flashbacks
☐ Difficulty concentrating
☐ Irritability
☐ Loss of interest in daily activities
☐ None of the above
10. How often have you felt unsafe on campus due to violence in nearby communities?
☐ Never
☐ Rarely
☐ Sometimes
☐ Often
☐ Always
11. On a scale of 1–5, how would you rate the level of psychological distress (e.g., anxiety, fear,
worry) you have experienced as a result of communal violence?
☐ 1 (No distress)
☐ 2 (Mild distress)
☐ 3 (Moderate distress)
☐ 4 (Severe distress)
☐ 5 (Extreme distress)

Section C: Social Impact of Communal Violence

(This section covers how communal violence has affected your social relationships and academic
performance.)

12. Has communal violence affected your relationships with friends, family, or classmates?
☐ Yes
☐ No
13. If yes, how has communal violence affected your social relationships?
(Check all that apply)
☐ Increased isolation
☐ Difficulty trusting others
☐ Conflicts with friends or family
☐ Reduced social interactions
☐ None of the above

75
 14. Has communal violence affected your academic performance?
☐ Yes
☐ No
15. If yes, in what ways has your academic performance been impacted?
(Check all that apply)
☐ Reduced concentration in class
☐ Missed lectures due to violence or fear of violence
☐ Poor performance in exams
☐ Delayed submission of assignments
☐ None of the above
16. How often do you miss classes due to communal violence-related disturbances?
☐ Never
☐ Rarely
☐ Sometimes
☐ Often
☐ Always
17. How does the closure of the university due to communal violence affect your academic
progress?
☐It causes delays in completing the semester.
☐It leads to uncertainty in academic planning.
☐It disrupts my academic rhythm and focus.
☐ No effect.

Section D: Coping Mechanisms

(This section focuses on how you cope with the effects of communal violence.)

18. What strategies do you use to cope with the stress and trauma caused by communal
violence?
(Check all that apply)
☐ Talking to friends and family
☐ Seeking counselling or professional help
☐ Praying or engaging in religious activities
☐ Avoiding conversations about violence
☐ Distracting yourself with other activities (e.g., sports, hobbies)
☐ Using social media as an outlet
☐ None of the above
19. How effective do you feel your coping strategies are in managing stress caused by
communal violence?
☐ Not effective
☐ Somewhat effective
☐ Effective
☐ Very effective
☐ Extremely effective
20. Have you ever sought professional help or counseling services to cope with the effects of
communal violence?
☐ Yes
☐ No
21. If no, what are the reasons for not seeking professional help?
(Check all that apply)

76
 ☐ I don’t think I need it.
☐ I don’t know where to find help.
☐ I am afraid of being stigmatized.
☐It is too expensive.
☐ Other (please specify) __________
22. In your opinion, what kind of support do students need to cope with the psychological and
social impact of communal violence?
(Check all that apply)
☐ Access to free counselling services
☐ Peer support groups
☐ Workshops on trauma and coping mechanisms
☐ Increased security measures on campus
☐ Regular communication and updates from university authorities
☐ Other (please specify) __________

Section E: Suggestions and Recommendations

23. What additional measures can the university take to protect students and minimize the impact of
communal violence?
_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

24. Do you have any other comments or suggestions regarding how students can be better supported
in times of communal violence?

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Thank you for your time and participation!

77