UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO RAPID PROTOTYPING

One of the important steps prior to the production of a functional

product is building of a physical prototype. Prototype is a working model
created in order to test various aspects of a design, illustrate ideas or
features and gather early user feed-back. Traditional prototyping is
typically done in a machine shop where most of parts are machined on
lathes and milling machines. This is a subtractive process, beginning with
a solid piece of stock and the machinist carefully removes the material
until the desired geometry is achieved. For complex part geometries, this
is an exhaustive, time consuming, and expensive process. A host of new
shaping techniques, usually put under the title Rapid Prototyping, are
being developed as an alternative to subtractive processes. These
methods are unique in that they add and bond materials in layers to
form objects. These systems are also known by the names additive
fabrication, three dimensional printing, solid freeform
fabrication (SFF), layered manufacturing etc. These additive
technologies offer significant advantages in many applications compared to
classical subtractive fabrication methods like formation of an object with
any geometric complexity or intricacy without the need for elaborate
machine setup or final assembly in very short time. This has resulted in their
wide use by engineers as a way to reduce time to market in
manufacturing, to better understand and communicate product designs,
and to make rapid tooling to manufacture those products. Surgeons,
architects, artists and individuals from many other disciplines also routinely
use this technology.

▪ Prototype: It is a model fabricated to prove out a concept or an

idea.

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 ▪ Solid Modelling: It’s a branch of CAD that produces 2D or 3D
objects in an electronic format.

▪ Definition: Rapid prototyping is basically a additive

manufacturing process used to quickly fabricate a model
of a part using 3-D CAM data.

▪ It can also be defined as layer by layer fabrication of 3D

physical models directly from CAD.

Need for the compression in the product development

• To increase effective communication.

• To decrease development time.
• To decrease costly mistakes.
• To minimize sustaining engineering changes.
• To extend product life time by adding necessary features &
eliminating redundant features early in the design.

Trends in manufacturing industries emphasis the following:

▪ Increasing the no of variants of products.

▪ Increase in product complexity.

▪ Decrease in product lifetime before obsolescence.

▪ Decrease in delivery time.

▪ Product development by Rapid prototyping by enabling better

communication.

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 Conventional Machining:

▪ Its not suitable for complex shapes because they are difficult to
machine.
▪ Time consuming

▪ Very costly

▪ Tedious or very laborious.

▪ Skilled operator is required.

▪ Accuracy will be less.

▪ Increased product development time.

❖ Pre-processing:- CAD model slicing & setting algorithms

applied for various RP systems.
❖ Post-processing:- Cleaning operations required to finish a part
after removing it from RP machine.
❖ Materials for Rapid Prototyping:- Paper, Wax, Plastics,
Resins, Metallic powders.

Methodology of Rapid Prototyping:

RP in its basic form can be described as the production of three

dimensional (3D) parts from computer aided design (CAD) data in a
decreased time scale. The basic methodology of all RP process can be
summarized as shown in following figure.

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Rapid prototyping process chain

▪ Construct a CAD model.

▪ Convert it to STL format.

▪ RP machine processes .STL file by creating sliced layers of model.

▪ First layer of model is created.

▪ Model is then lowered by thickness of next layer.

▪ Process is repeated until completion of model

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▪ The model & any supports are removed.

▪ Surface of the model is then finished and cleaned.

(1) Development of a CAD model

The process begins with the generation CAD model of the desired
object which can be done by one of the following ways;
• Conversion of an existing two dimensional (2D) drawing
• Importing scanned point data into a CAD package
• Creating a new part in CAD in various solid modeling packages
• Altering an existing CAD model

RP has traditionally been associated with solid rather than surface

modelling but the more recent trends for organic shapes in product
design is increasing the need for free flowing surfaces generated better
in surface modelling.

(2) Generation of Standard triangulation language (STL) file

The developed 3D CAD model is tessellated and converted into STL

files that are required for RP processes. Tessellation is piecewise
approximation of surfaces of 3D CAD model using series of triangles.
Size of triangles depends on the chordal error or maximum fact
deviation. For better approximation of surface and smaller chordal
error, small size triangle are used which increase the STL file size. This
tessellated CAD data generally carry defects like gaps, overlaps,
degenerate facets etc which may necessitate the repair software. These
defects are shown in figure below. The STL file connects the surface of
the model in an array of triangles and consists of the X, Y and Z
coordinates of the three vertices of each surface triangle, as well as an
index that describes the orientation of the surface normal.

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Tessellation defects

(3) Slicing the STL file

Slicing is defined as the creating contours of sections of the geometry at

various heights in the multiples of layer thickness. Once the STL file has
been generated from the original CAD data the next step is to slice the
object to create a slice file (SLI). This necessitates the decision regarding
part deposition orientation and then the tessellated model is sliced.
Part orientation will be showing considerable effect on the surface as
shown in the figures.

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Effect of Part deposition Orientation

The thickness of slices is governed by layer thickness that the machine

will be building in, the thicker the layer the larger the steps on the
surface of the model when it has been built. After the STL file has been
sliced to create the SLI files they are merged into a final build file. This
information is saved in standard formats like SLC or CLI (Common
Layer Interface) etc.

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(4) Support Structures

As the parts are going to be built in layers, and there may be areas
that could float away or of overhang which could distort. Therefore,
some processes require a base and support structures to be added to
the file which are built as part of the model and later removed.

(5) Manufacturing

As discussed previously, the RP process is additive i.e. it builds the parts up

in layers of material from the bottom. Each layer is automatically bonded
to the layer below and the process is repeated until the part is built. This
process of bonding is undertaken in different ways for the various materials
that are being used2 but includes the use of Ultraviolet (UV) lasers, Carbon
Dioxide (C ) lasers, heat sensitive glues and melting the material itself etc.

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(6) Post processing

The parts are removed from the machine and post processing
operations are performed sometimes to add extra strength to the part
by filling process voids or finish the curing of a part or to hand finish
the parts to the desired level. The level of post processing will depend
greatly on the final requirements of the parts produced, for example,
metal tooling for injection molding will require extensive finishing to
eject the parts but a prototype part manufactured to see if it will
physically fit in a space will require little or no post processing.

History of RP system

• It started in 1980’s
• First technique is Stereo lithography (SLA)
• It was developed by 3D systems of Valencia in California, USA in
1986.
• Fused deposition modeling (FDM) developed by stratasys
company in 1988.
• Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) developed by Helisis
(USA).
• Solid ground Curing developed by Cubitol corporation of Israel.
• Selective laser sintering developed by DTM of Austin, Texas (USA)
in 1989.
• Sanders Model maker developed by Wilton incorporation USA in
1990.
• Multi Jet Modeling by 3D systems.
• 3-D Printing by Solygen incorporation, MIT, USA.

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Applications

Most of the RP parts are finished or touched up before they are used
for their intended applications. Applications can be grouped into

(1)Design (2) Engineering, Analysis, and Planning and (3) Tooling and
Manufacturing . A wide rangeof industries can benefit from RP andthese
include, but are not limited to, aerospace, automotive, biomedical,
consumer, electrical and electronics products.

Classification of RP systems

The professional literature in RP contains different ways of classifying

RP processes. However, one representation based on German standard
of production processes classifies RP processes according to state of
aggregation of their original material and is given in figure

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Here, few important RP processes namely

Classification of RP Processes

Here, few important RP processes namely

Stereo lithography (SLA)

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Solid Ground Curing (SGC) are described

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STEREOLITHOGRAPHY

Introduction:

It is the first RP system developed by 3D SYSTEMS of Valencia in

California, USA in 1996.
First Model developed was 250/50 followed by 250/30, 3500, 5000
and 7000.

Principle:

SLA is a laser based Rapid Prototyping process which builds parts

directly from CAD by curing or hardening a photosensitive resin with a
relatively low power laser.

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StereoLithography (SL) is the best known rapid prototyping system. The

technique builds three-dimensional models from liquid photosensitive
polymers that solidify when exposed to laser beam. The model is built upon
a platform in a vat of photo sensitive liquid. A focused UV laser traces out
the first layer, solidifying the model cross section while leaving excess areas
liquid. In the next step, an elevator lowers the platform into the liquid
polymer by an amount equal to layer thickness. A sweeper recoats the
solidified layer with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer on the first.
This process is repeated until the prototype is complete. Afterwards, the
solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of excess liquid.
Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven
for complete curing.

Parameters:

Laser Type: Helium Cadmium Laser (He-Cd)

Laser Power: 24mW

Laser Life: 2000 hours

Re-coat material: Zaphir

Minimum Slice Thickness: 0.1mm

Beam Diameter: 0.2mm

Scan Speed: 0.75m/sec

Maximum Part Volume: 0.25x0.25x0.25 m

Maximum Part Weight: 9 kgs

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Application Range

• Processing large variety of photo-sensitive polymers including

clear, water resistant and flexible resins
• Functional parts for tests
• Tools for pre series production tests.
• Manufacturing of medical models
• Manufacturing of electro-forms for Electro Discharge Machining
(EDM)
• Form-fit functions for assembly tests.

Advantages

• Possibility of manufacturing parts which are impossible to

produce conventionally using a single process.
• Continuous unattended operation for 24 hours.
• High resolution.
• Any geometrical shape can be made with virtually no limitation.

Disadvantages

• Necessity to have support structures

• Accuracy not in the range of mechanical part manufacturing.
• Restricted areas of application due to given material properties.
• Labour requirements for post processing, especially cleaning.

Software:
i. SLA CONTROL AND SET UP SOFTWARE: It operates on SLA
250 and SLA 500 machines. It has got three packages.
a) SLA VIEW: UNIX based system for viewing and positioning.

b) BRIDGE WORKS: UNIX based software for generating

support structures.
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c) SLA SLICE: Slicing and system operation software.

ii. MAESTRO: UNIX based software
iii. MS WINDOWS NT SOFTWARE (3D LIGHT YEAR): It is used
for viewing,
positioning, support generation and slicing, build station for operating
SLA machine.

Build Materials Used:

Epoxy Resin, Acrylate Resin

Epoxy Resin has better material properties and less hazardous but
require large exposure time for curing.

SLA HARDWARE:

The build chamber of SLA contains

1) A removable VAT that holds the build resin.

2) A detachable perforated build platen on a Z axis elevator frame
3) An automated resin level checking apparatus
4) VAT has a small amount of Z movement capability which allows
computer to maintain a exact height per layer.
5) A recoated blade rides along the track at the top of the rack and
serves to smooth the liquid across the part surface to prevent any
rounding off edges due to cohesion effects.
6) Some systems have Zaphyrrecoater blade which actually softens up
resin and delivers it evenly across the part surface.
7) Behind the build chamber resides the laser and optics required to
cure resin.

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8) Laser unit is long rectangular about 4 feet long and remains

stationary.

Stereolithography Apparatus Operation:

1) The process begins with the solid model in various CAD formats
2) The solid model must consist of enclosed volumes before it is
translated form CAD format into .STL FILE
3) The solid model is oriented into the positive octant of Cartesian co-
ordinate system and then translate out Z axis by at least 0.25
inches to allow for building of supports
4) The solid model is also oriented for optimum build which involves
placing complex curvatures in XY plane where possible and
rotating for least Z height as well as to where least amount of
supports are required
5) The .STL FILE is verified
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6) The final .STL FILE one which supports in addition to original file
are then sliced into horizontal cross sections and saved as slice file.
7) The slice files are then masked to create four separate files that
control SLA machine ending with 5 extensions L, R, V and PRM.
8) Important one is V file. I.e. Vector file. The V file contains actual
line data that the laser will follow to cure the shape of the part.

9) R file is the range file which contains data for solid or open fields as
well as re-coater blade parameters.
The four build files are downloaded to SLA which begins building
supports with platen adjust above the surface level. The first few
support layers are actually cured into perforations into platen, thus
providing a solid anchor for the rest of the part.
By building, SLA uses laser to scan the cross section and fill across the
surface of resin which is cured or hardened into the cross sectional
shape. The platen is lowered as the slices are completed so that more
resin is available in the upper surface of the part to be cured. Final
step is Post Processing.
Post Processing:

1) Ultraviolet Oven (Post Curing

Apparatus) 2) An Alcohol Bath.
Clean the part in the alcohol bath and then go for final curing.

Advantages:

1) Parts have best surface quality

2) High Accuracy
3) High speed
4) Finely detailed features like thin vertical walls, sharp corners & tall
columns can be fabricated with ease.

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Disadvantages:

1) It requires Post Processing. i.e. Post Curing.

2) Careful handling of raw materials required.
3) High cost of Photo Curable Resin.

Applications:

1) Investment Casting.
2) Wind Tunnel Modelling.
3) Tooling.
4) Injection Mould Tools.

Diagram:

Fig: Stereolithography Apparatus

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Important Questions:

1. What is rapid prototyping ? and what are the advantages and

disadvantages of rapid prototyping?
2. What is rapid prototyping systems? Classify rapid prototyping
systems.
3. What is the need and importance of rapid prototyping?
4. Write a note on history of RP systems.
5. Explain the principles and applications of stereolithography systems.
6. Write a note on stereolithography?
7. Explain the principles, process parameters and process details of
stereolithography.
8. What is the need for a prototype in new product development.
9. What are the applications of rapidprototyping in the medical field?
10. What are the recent trends in rapidprototyping?
11. List the application areas of stereolithography process.
12. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stereolithography
process?

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UNIT-2

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING

Introduction:
Selective Laser Sintering is a rapid prototyping process that builds
models from a wide variety of materials using an additive fabrication
[Link] Laser Sintering was developed by university of Texas
Austin in [Link] build media for Selective Laser Sintering comes in
powder form which is fused together by a powerful carbon dioxide
laser to form the final product.

DTM sinter station 2500 is the machine used for the process.

Selective Laser Sintering begins like most other rapid prototyping

processes with a standard

.STL CAD file [Link] view software uses the .STL files. This
software do the required orientation and scaling of parts.
This machine has auto nesting capabilities which will place multiple
part optimally in the build chamber for best processing speed and
results. Once the .STL file is placed and parameters are set the model is
directly built from the file.

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The sinter station has built piston at the center and feed piston on the either
side. The model is built layer by layer like other rapid prototyping process so
that the build piston will begin at the top of its range and will lower in
increments of the set layer size as parts are built. With the build piston at
the top a thin layer of powder is spread across the build area by the roller
from one of the feed piston. The laser then cures in a raster sweeps motion
across the area of the parts being [Link] part piston lowers and more
powder is deposited and the process is continued until all of the part is
[Link] build media is removed from the machine. It is a cake of powder.
This cake is taken to the breakout station where excess powder is removed
from the part manually with brushesthe excess powder that has been
removed can be kept for recycling and can be reused. Some material needs
additional finishing. Some of the

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finishing techniques include grid blasting, sanding, polishing, drilling,

taping and coatin
Purpose of Selective Laser Sintering:

To provide a prototyping tool

To decrease the time and cost of design to product cycle.

It can use wide variety of materials to accommodate multiple

application throughout the manufacturing process

Applications:

1. As conceptual models.

2. Functional prototypes.

3. As Pattern masters.

Advantages:

1. Wide range of build materials.

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2. High throughput capabilities.

3. Self-supporting build envelop.

[Link] are completed faster.

5. Damage is less.

[Link] wastage of material

Disadvantages:
1. Initial cost of system is high.
2. High operational and maintenance cost.
3. Peripheral and facility requirement.
FUSED DEPOSITION MOULDING

Introduction:

Fused Deposition Modelling is an extrusion based rapid prototyping

process although it works on the same layer by layer principle as other
RP systems. Fused Deposition Modelling relies on standard STL data file
for input and is capable of using multiple build materials in a build or
support relationship.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) machine is basically a CNC-
controlled robot carrying a miniature extruder head. By feeding the
head with a plastic wire, solid objects are built "string by string". In this
technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip
that moves in the x-y plane. Like a baker decorating a cake, the
controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of material onto the
build platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained at a
lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens. After
the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon
the first. Supports are built along the way, fastened to the part either
with a second, weaker material or with a perforated junction.
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Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Software Used:

FDM machine uses Quick Slice software to manipulate and prepare

the incoming STL date for use in FDM machines. Software can be
operated on various types of workstations from UNIX to PC based.
Build Materials:

1) Investment Casting Wax.

2) Acrilonitrile Butadiene Styrene plastic.

3) Elastomer.

Extrusion Head:

1) It is a key to FDM technology.

2) Compact and removable unit.
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3) It consists of Dry Blocks, Heating Chamber and Tips.

Dry Blocks:

a) These are raw material feeding mechanisms and are mounted on

back of head.
b) These are computer controlled.
c) Capable of precision loading and unloading of filament.
d) It consists of two parallel wheels attached to a small electric motor
by gears.
e) The wheels have a plastic and rubber thread and are spaced
approximately 0.07inches apart and turn opposite to one another.
f) When the wheels are turned in and end of the filament is placed
between them, they continue to push or pull the material
depending on direction of rotation.
g) When loading the filament is pushed horizontally into the head
through a hole, a little longer than the filament diameter which is
the entry to the heating chamber.
Heating Chamber:

a) It is a 90’ curved elbow wrapped in a heating element which serves

two primary functions
To change the direction of the filament flow so that the material
is extruded vertically downwards.
To serve as a melting area for the material
b) The heating element is electronically controlled and has feedback
thermocouple to allow for a stable temperature throughout.
c) The heating elements are held at a temperature just above the
melting point of the material so that the filament passes from the
exit of the chamber is in molten state. This allows for smooth
extrusion as well as time control on material placement.
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d) At the end of the heating chamber which is about 4 inch long is the
extrusion orifice or tip.

Tip:
a) The two tips are externally threaded and screwed up into the
heating chamber exit and are used to reduce the extruded
filament diameter to allow for better detailed modelling
b) .The tips are heated by heating chamber up to above the melting
point of the material.
c) The tips can be removed and replaced with different size openings,
the two most common being 0.012 inch and 0.025 inches.
d) The extruding surface of the tip is flat serving as the hot shearing
surface to maintain a smooth upper finish of extruded material.
e) The tip is the point at which the material is deposited onto a foam
substrate to build the model..
Build Substrate:

1) The foam substrate is an expendable work table once which parts

are built.
2) The substrate is about 1 inch thick and is passed on into a
removable tray by one quarter inch pins.
3) The foam used is capable of withstanding higher temperature. As
for the first few layers of the part, the hot extrusion orifices are
touching the substrate.
4) The support material is used to support overhangs, internal
cavities and thin sections during extrusion as well as to provide a
base to anchor (part) to the substrate while building.

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FDM OPERATION:

i. CAD file preparation:

•
Before building the part, the STL file has to be converted into the
machine language understood by FDM. Quick Slice software is
used for this purpose.
•
The STL file is read into Quick Slice and is displayed graphically
on screen in Cartesian co-ordinate system (XYZ)
•
Building box represents maximum build envelope of FDM.
• Quick slice gives us options on the FDM system being used, the slice
layer thickness, the build and support materials as well as tip sizes.
ii. Part Size:

The part must fit into the building box, if not it will either have to be
scaled down to fit or be sectioned so that the pieces can be built
separately and then bonded together later.

iii. Orientation and Positioning:

Once the part has been built in appropriate built size, the part should
be oriented in an optimum position for building. The shape of the part
plays an important role in this, in that some orientations may require
less supporting of overhangs than the others.
iv. Slicing:
Once the part has been properly oriented and or scaled it must be sliced.
Slicing is a software operation that creates thin horizontal cross sections of
STL file that will later be used to create control code for the machine.
In Quick Slice, the slice thickness can be changed before slicing, the
typical slices ranging from
0.005 inches to 0.015 inches.

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Quick Slice allows

•
To perform simple editing functions on slice files. Also editing function
allows repair of minor flaws in the STL file with the options of
closing and merging of curves.
Build Parameters:

A. Sets:

Quick Slice uses sets or packages of build parameters. Sets contain all
of the build instructions for a selected set of curves in a part. Sets allow
a part to be built with several different settings
E.g. One set may be used for supporting structure of the part, one for
part face, another for thicker sections of the part and still another for
exposed surfaces of the part. This allows flexibility of building bulkier
sections and internal fills quickly by getting finer details on visible areas
of a part.
Sets also allow chosen sections of a part to build hollow, cross hatched
or solid if so desired.
Two of the build parameters commonly worked with are road width
and fill spacing.

B. Road Width:

Road Width is the width of the ribbon of molten material that is

extruded from the tip.

When FDM builds a layer, it usually begins by outlining the cross

section with a perimeter road, sometimes followed by one or more
concentric contours inside of perimeters.
Next it begins to fill remaining internal area in a raster or hatched
pattern until a complete solid layer is finished.

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Therefore three types of roads are Perimeter,

Contour and Raster.

C. Fill Spacing:

Fill spacing is the distance left between raster’s or contours that make
up interior solids of the parts. A fill spacing set at zero means that part
will be built solid.

D. Creating and Outputting Roads:

Once all parameters have been set, road are created graphically by
Quick Slice. The user is then allowed to preview each slice if so desired
to see if the part is going to build as required.

E. Getting a Build Time Estimate:

Quick slice has a very good build time estimator which activates when an
SML file is written. SML stands for Stratasys Machine Language. Basically it
displays in the command windows, the approximate amount of time and
material to be used for given part. Build time estimate allows for a efficient
tracking and scheduling of FDM system work loads.

F. Building a part:

The FDM receives a SML file and will begin by moving the head to the
extreme X and Y portions to find it and then raises the platen to a
point to where the foam substrate is just below heated tips. After
checking the raw material supply and temperature settings, the user
then manually places the head at point where the part has to be built
on the foam and then presses a button to begin building. After that
FDM will build part completely without any user intervention.

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G. Finishing a FDM part:

FDM parts are an easiest part to finish.

Applications:

a. Concept or Design Visualization.

b. Direct Use Components.
c. Investment Casting.
d. Medical Applications
e. Flexible Components.
f. Conceptual modeling.
g. Fit, form and functional applications and models for further
manufacturing procedures.
h. Investment casting and injection molding.

Advantages:

a. Strength and temperature capability of build materials.

b. Safe laser free operation.
c. Easy Post Processing.
d. Quick and cheap generation of models.
e. Easy and convenient date building.
f. No worry of possible exposure to toxic chemicals, lasers, or a liquid
polymer bath.
g. No wastage of material during or after producing the model.
h. No requirement of clean-up.
i. Quick change of materials.

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Disadvantages:

a. Process is slower than laser based systems.

b. Build Speed is low.
c. Thin vertical column prove difficult to build with FDM.
d. Physical contact with extrusion can sometimes topple or at least
shift thin vertical columns and walls.
e. Restricted accuracy due to the shape of the material used: wire of
1.27 mm diameter.
FDM Material Properties:
Material Tensile Tensile Flexural Flexural
Strength Modulus Strength Modulus
(Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
(Mpa)
ABDP400 35.2 1535 66.9 2626
Medical 38 2014 58.9 1810
Grade
ABSP 500
Investment 3.6 282 49.6 282
casting wax
(ICW06)
Elastomer 6.55 70 89.69 141

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Diagrams:

Fig a: FDM Extrusion Head

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Fig b: Fused Deposition Model Apparatus

Important Questions:

1. What is selective laser sintering?

2. Explain briefly selective laser sintering.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of selective laser
sintering.
4. Explain the principles, process parameters, and process details of
selective laser sintering.
5. What is the power source (heat source) used to heat-up the material?
6. Explain data preparation for selective laser sintering.
7. List the application areas of selective laser sintering.
8. What is fusion deposition modelling?
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9. Explain briefly fusion deposition modelling.

10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fusion deposition
modelling.
11. Explain the principle, process parameter, process details of fusion
deposition modelling.
12. List the application areas of fusion deposition modelling.
13. What is the heat source used in fusion deposition modelling?
14. What is the meaning of the term “fusion” as used in fusion
deposition modelling.

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