C H A P T E R

Steady-State Conduction—
Multiple Dimensions

3-1 INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 2 steady-state heat transfer was calculated in systems in which the temperature
gradient and area could be expressed in terms of one space coordinate. We now wish to
analyze the more general case of two-dimensional heat flow. For steady state with no heat
generation, the Laplace equation applies.
2 2
2 2
0 [3-1]

assuming constant thermal conductivity. The solution to this equation may be obtained by
analytical, numerical, or graphical techniques.
The objective of any heat-transfer analysis is usually to predict heat flow or the tem-
perature that results from a certain heat flow. The solution to Equation (3-1) will give the
temperature in a two-dimensional body as a function of the two independent space coor-
dinates x and y. Then the heat flow in the x and y directions may be calculated from the
Fourier equations

[3-2]

[3-3]

These heat-flow quantities are directed either in the x direction or in the y direction. The
total heat flow at any point in the material is the resultant of the and at that point.
Thus the total heat-flow vector is directed so that it is perpendicular to the lines of constant
temperature in the material, as shown in Figure 3-1. So if the temperature distribution in
the material is known, we may easily establish the heat flow.

3-2 MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF

TWO-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION
We first consider an analytical approach to a two-dimensional problem and then indicate the
numerical and graphical methods that may be used to advantage in many other problems.
 Mathematical Analysis of Two-Dimensional Heat Conduction

It is worthwhile to mention here that analytical solutions are not always possible to obtain;
indeed, in many instances they are very cumbersome and difficult to use. In these cases
numerical techniques are frequently used to advantage. For a more extensive treatment of
the analytical methods used in conduction problems, the reader may consult References 1,
2, 10, and 11.
Consider the rectangular plate shown in Figure 3-2. Three sides of the plate are main-
tained at the constant temperature 1 , and the upper side has some temperature distribution
impressed upon it. This distribution could be simply a constant temperature or something
more complex, such as a sine-wave distribution. We shall consider both cases.
To solve Equation (3-1), the separation-of-variables method is used. The essential
point of this method is that the solution to the differential equation is assumed to take a
product form
where

The boundary conditions are then applied to determine the form of the functions and .
The basic assumption as given by Equation (3-4) can be justified if it is possible to
find a solution of this form that satisfies the boundary conditions.

Sketch showing the heat flow in

two dimensions.

Iso
the
rm

Isotherms and heat flow lines in a

rectangular plate.

y
=( )

1
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

First consider the boundary conditions with a sine-wave temperature distribution

impressed on the upper edge of the plate. Thus
1 at 0
1 at 0
1 at

sin 1 at

where is the amplitude of the sine function. Substituting Equation (3-4) in (3-1) gives

1 2 1 2
2 2

Observe that each side of Equation (3-6) is independent of the other because and are
independent variables. This requires that each side be equal to some constant. We may thus
obtain two ordinary differential equations in terms of this constant,
2
2
2
0

2
2
2
0

where 2 is called the . Its value must be determined from the boundary
conditions. Note that the form of the solution to Equations (3-7) and (3-8) will depend on
the sign of 2 ; a different form would also result if 2 were zero. The only way that the
correct form can be determined is through an application of the boundary conditions of
the problem. So we shall first write down all possible solutions and then see which one fits
the problem under consideration.
2 0:
1 2
3 4
1 2 3 4

This function cannot fit the sine-function boundary condition, so the 2 0 solution may
be excluded.
2 0:
5 6
7 cos 8 sin
5 6 7 cos 8 sin

Again, the sine-function boundary condition cannot be satisfied, so this solution is excluded
also.
2 0:
9 cos 10 sin
11 12
9 cos 10 sin 11 12

Now, it is possible to satisfy the sine-function boundary condition; so we shall attempt to

satisfy the other conditions. The algebra is somewhat easier to handle when the substitution
1
 Mathematical Analysis of Two-Dimensional Heat Conduction

is made. The differential equation and the solution then retain the same form in the new
variable , and we need only transform the boundary conditions. Thus
0 at 0
0 at 0 [3-12]
0 at
sin at

Applying these conditions, we have

0 9 cos 10 sin 11 12 [a]

0 9 11 12 [b]

0 9 cos 10 sin 11 12 [c]

sin 9 cos 10 sin 11 12 [d]

Accordingly,

11 12
9 0

and from (c),

0 10 12 sin

This requires that

sin 0 [3-13]

Recall that was an undetermined separation constant. Several values will satisfy Equation
(3-13), and these may be written
[3-14]

where n is an integer. The solution to the differential equation may thus be written as a sum
of the solutions for each value of n. This is an infinite sum, so that the final solution is the
infinite series

1 sin sinh [3-15]

1

where the constants have been combined and the exponential terms converted to the hyper-
bolic function. The final boundary condition may now be applied:

sin sin sinh

1

which requires that 0 for 1. The final solution is therefore

sinh
sin 1 [3-16]
sinh

The temperature field for this problem is shown in Figure 3-2. Note that the heat-flow lines
are perpendicular to the isotherms.
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

We now consider the set of boundary conditions

1 at 0
1 at 0
1 at
2 at

Using the first three boundary conditions, we obtain the solution in the form of Equation
(3-15):

1 sin sinh
1

Applying the fourth boundary condition gives

2 1 sin sinh
1

This is a Fourier sine series, and the values of the may be determined by expanding
the constant temperature difference 2 1 in a Fourier series over the interval 0 .
This series is
2 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 sin
1

Upon comparison of Equation (3-18) with Equation (3-19), we find that

2 1 1 1 1
2 1
sinh

and the final solution is expressed as

2 1 1 1 sinh
1
sin
2 1 sinh
1

An extensive study of analytical techniques used in conduction heat transfer requires

a background in the theory of orthogonal functions. Fourier series are one example of
orthogonal functions, as are Bessel functions and other special functions applicable to
different geometries and boundary conditions. The interested reader may consult one or
more of the conduction heat-transfer texts listed in the references for further information
on the subject.

Consider the two-dimensional system shown in Figure 3-3. The inside surface is maintained
at some temperature 1 , and the outer surface is maintained at 2 . We wish to calculate the
heat transfer. Isotherms and heat-flow lanes have been sketched to aid in this calculation.
The isotherms and heat-flow lanes form groupings of curvilinear figures like that shown in
Figure 3-3 . The heat flow across this curvilinear section is given by Fourier’s law, assuming
unit depth of material:
1
 Graphical Analysis

Sketch showing element used for curvilinear-square

analysis of two-dimensional heat flow.

( )

( )

This heat flow will be the same through each section within this heat-flow lane, and the total
heat flow will be the sum of the heat flows through all the lanes. If the sketch is drawn so
that , the heat flow is proportional to the across the element and, since this heat
flow is constant, the across each element must be the same within the same heat-flow
lane. Thus the across an element is given by

overall

where is the number of temperature increments between the inner and outer surfaces.
Furthermore, the heat flow through each lane is the same since it is independent of the
dimensions and when they are constructed equal. Thus we write for the total heat
transfer

overall 2 1

where is the number of heat-flow lanes. So, to calculate the heat transfer, we need only
construct these curvilinear-square plots and count the number of temperature increments
and heat-flow lanes. Care must be taken to construct the plot so that and the lines
are perpendicular. For the corner section shown in Figure 3-3 the number of temperature
increments between the inner and outer surfaces is about 4, while the number of heat-
flow lanes for the corner section may be estimated as 8 2. The total number of heat-flow
lanes is four times this value, or 4 8 2 32 8. The ratio is thus 32 8 4 8 2 for the
whole wall section. This ratio will be called the in subsequent
discussions.
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

The accuracy of this method is dependent entirely on the skill of the person sketching
the curvilinear squares. Even a crude sketch, however, can frequently help to give fairly
good estimates of the temperatures that will occur in a body. An electrical analogy may be
employed to sketch the curvilinear squares, as discussed in Section 3-9.
The graphical method presented here is mainly of historical interest to show the relation
of heat-flow lanes and isotherms. It may not be expected to be used for the solution of many
practical problems.

In a two-dimensional system where only two temperature limits are involved, we may define
a conduction shape factor such that
overall

The values of have been worked out for several geometries and are summarized in
Table 3-1. A very comprehensive summary of shape factors for a large variety of geometries
is given by Rohsenow [15] and Hahne and Grigull [17]. Note that the inverse hyperbolic
cosine can be calculated from
1 2
cosh ln 1

For a three-dimensional wall, as in a furnace, separate shape factors are used to calculate
the heat flow through the edge and corner sections, with the dimensions shown in Figure 3-4.
When all the interior dimensions are greater than one-fifth of the wall thickness,

wall edge 0 54 corner 0 15

where
area of wall
wall thickness
length of edge
Note that the shape factor per unit depth is given by the ratio when the curvilinear-
squares method is used for calculations.

Sketch illustrating dimensions for use in calculating

three-dimensional shape factors.
 The Conduction Shape Factor

Conduction shape factors, summarized from References 6 and 7.

For buried objects the temperature difference is object far field . The far-field
temperature is taken the same as the isothermal surface temperature for semi-infinite media.

Physical system Schematic Shape factor Restrictions

Isothermal cylinder of radius 2

Isothermal
buried in semi-infinite medium cosh 1
having isothermal surface
2
D 3
ln
r

Isothermal sphere of radius 4

buried in infinite medium
r

Isothermal sphere of radius Isothermal 4

buried in semi-infinite medium 1 2D
having isothermal surface
surf far field D
r

Conduction between two r1 r2 2

isothermal cylinders of length 2 2 2
cosh 1 21 2
1 2
buried in infinite medium
D

Row of horizontal cylinders Isothermal 2 2

of length in semi-infinite ln 1 sinh 2
medium with isothermal
surface
D

Buried cube in infinite 8.24

medium, on a side

L
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

(Continued).

Physical system Schematic Shape factor Restrictions

Isothermal cylinder 2 2
Isothermal
of radius placed in ln 2
semi-infinite medium
as shown L

2r

Isothermal rectangular Isothermal 0 59 0 078 See Reference 7

1 685 log 1
parallelepiped buried in
semi-infinite medium having b
isothermal surface

c
L
a

Plane wall One-dimensional heat flow

Hollow cylinder, length 2

ri
+ ro ln

Hollow sphere 4
ri
+ ro

Thin horizontal disk buried Isothermal 4 0

in semi-infinite medium 2r D 8 2
with isothermal surface 4 2 1
2 tan 1 2 tan 1 2 in radians
Hemisphere buried in Isothermal 2
semi-infinite medium +
sphere far field r

Isothermal sphere buried in Insulated 4

semi-infinite medium with 1 2
D
insulated surface +
T r

Two isothermal spheres 4 2 5 max

r1 r2
buried in infinite medium 2 1
4 22
+ + 1 2
1 1 2
D
 The Conduction Shape Factor

(Continued).

Physical system Schematic Shape factor Restrictions

Thin rectangular plate of Isothermal 0

length , buried in semi-infinite ln 4
medium having isothermal D
L 2
surface ln 4
W
2
ln 2 2

Parallel disks buried in 4 5

t1 t2
infinite medium r 2 tan 1 tan 1
in radians

Eccentric cylinders of length 2 2

r2 2 2 2
r1 cosh 1 1 2
21 2
+ +
D

Cylinder centered in a square 2

of length ln 0 54
L

r
W +

Horizontal cylinder of length Isothermal 2

centered in infinite plate ln 4
D
r
+

Isothermal

Thin horizontal disk buried in Insulated 4 2 1

semi-infinite medium with 2 tan 1 2 tan 1 2
adiabatic surface in radians
D
disk far field

2r
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

Buried Pipe
A horizontal pipe 15 cm in diameter and 4 m long is buried in the earth at a depth of 20 cm.
The pipe-wall temperature is 75 C, and the earth surface temperature is 5 C. Assuming that the
thermal conductivity of the earth is 0 8 W m C, calculate the heat lost by the pipe.

We may calculate the shape factor for this situation using the equation given in Table 3-1. Since
3 ,
2 2 4
15 35 m
cosh 1 cosh 1 20 7 5
The heat flow is calculated from
0 8 15 35 75 5 859 6 W 2933 Btu h

Cubical Furnace
A small cubical furnace 50 by 50 by 50 cm on the inside is constructed of fireclay brick
[ 1 04 W m C] with a wall thickness of 10 cm. The inside of the furnace is maintained
at 500 C, and the outside is maintained at 50 C. Calculate the heat lost through the walls.

We compute the total shape factor by adding the shape factors for the walls, edges, and corners:
05 05
25m
01

0 54 0 54 0 5 0 27 m

0 15 0 15 0 1 0 015 m

There are six wall sections, twelve edges, and eight corners, so that the total shape factor is
6 25 12 0 27 8 0 015 18 36 m

and the heat flow is calculated as

1 04 18 36 500 50 8 592 kW 29 320 Btu h

Buried Disk
A disk having a diameter of 30 cm and maintained at a temperature of 95 C is buried at a depth of
1.0 m in a semi-infinite medium having an isothermal surface temperature of 20 C and a thermal
conductivity of 2 1 W m C. Calculate the heat lost by the disk.

This is an application of the conduction shape factor relation . Consulting Table 3-1 we
find a choice of three relations for for the geometry of a disk buried in a semi-infinite medium
with an isothermal surface. Clearly, 0 and is not large compared to 2 , so the relation we
select for the shape factor is for the case 2 1 0:

4
2 tan 1 2
 Numerical Method of Analysis

Note that this relation differs from the one for an insulated surface by the minus sign in the
denominator. Inserting 0 15 m and 1 0 m we obtain
4 0 15 4 0 15
1 26 m
2 tan 1 0 15 2 2 0 07486

For buried objects the shape factor is based on object far field . The far-field temperature
is taken as the isothermal surface temperature, and the heat lost by the disk is therefore
2 1 1 26 95 20 198 45 W

Buried Parallel Disks

Two parallel 50-cm-diameter disks are separated by a distance of 1.5 m in an infinite medium
having 2 3 W m C. One disk is maintained at 80 C and the other at 20 C. Calculate the
heat transfer between the disks.

This is a shape-factor problem and the heat transfer may be calculated from

where is obtained from Table 3-1 as

4
for 5
2 tan 1

With 0 25 m and 1 5 m we obtain

4 0 25 4 0 25
2 235
2 tan 1 0 25 1 5 2 0 1651

and
2 3 2 235 80 20 308 4 W

Sketch An immense number of analytical solutions for conduction heat-transfer problems have
illustrating nomenclature used been accumulated in the literature over the past 150 years. Even so, in many practical
in two-dimensional numerical situations the geometry or boundary conditions are such that an analytical solution has not
analysis of heat conduction.
been obtained at all, or if the solution has been developed, it involves such a complex series
solution that numerical evaluation becomes exceedingly difficult. For such situations the
1 most fruitful approach to the problem is one based on finite-difference techniques, the basic
principles of which we shall outline in this section.
Consider a two-dimensional body that is to be divided into equal increments in both
1 1 the and directions, as shown in Figure 3-5. The nodal points are designated as shown,
the locations indicating the increment and the locations indicating the increment.
We wish to establish the temperatures at any of these nodal points within the body, using
1
Equation (3-1) as a governing condition. Finite differences are used to approximate differ-
ential increments in the temperature and space coordinates; and the smaller we choose these
finite increments, the more closely the true temperature distribution will be approximated.
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

The temperature gradients may be written as follows:

1

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 2

2 2
1 2 1 2 1 1
2 2

Thus the finite-difference approximation for Equation (3-1) becomes

1 1 2 1 1 2
2 2
0

If , then

1 1 1 1 4 0

Since we are considering the case of constant thermal conductivity, the heat flows may all
be expressed in terms of temperature differentials. Equation (3-24) states very simply that
the net heat flow into any node is zero at steady-state conditions. In effect, the numerical
finite-difference approach replaces the continuous temperature distribution by fictitious
heat-conducting rods connected between small nodal points that do not generate heat.
We can also devise a finite-difference scheme to take heat generation into account. We
merely add the term into the general equation and obtain
1 1 2 1 1 2
2 2
0

Then for a square grid in which ,

2
1 1 1 1 4 1 0 a

To utilize the numerical method, Equation (3-24) must be written for each node within the
material and the resultant system of equations solved for the temperatures at the various
nodes. A very simple example is shown in Figure 3-6, and the four equations for nodes 1,
2, 3, and 4 would be
100 500 2 3 4 1 0
1 500 100 4 4 2 0
 Numerical Method of Analysis

Four-node problem.

= 500˚C

= 100˚C
= 100˚C
1 2

3 4

= 100˚C

100 1 4 100 4 3 0
3 2 100 100 4 4 0

These equations have the solution

1 2 250 C 3 4 150 C

Of course, we could recognize from symmetry that 1 2 and 3 4 and would then
only need two nodal equations,
100 500 3 3 1 0
100 1 100 3 3 0

Once the temperatures are determined, the heat flow may be calculated from

where the is taken at the boundaries. In the example the heat flow may be calculated
at either the 500 C face or the three 100 C faces. If a sufficiently fine grid is used, the two
values should be very nearly the same. As a matter of general practice, it is usually best to
take the arithmetic average of the two values for use in the calculations. In the example, the
two calculations yield:
500
250 500 250 500 500

100

250 100 150 100 150 100 150 100

150 100 250 100 500

and the two values agree in this case. The calculation of the heat flow in cases in which
curved boundaries or complicated shapes are involved is treated in References 2, 3, and 15.
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

When the solid is exposed to some convection boundary condition, the temperatures
at the surface must be computed differently from the method given above. Consider the
boundary shown in Figure 3-7. The energy balance on node is
1 1 1
2 2

If the boundary temperature is expressed in the equation

1
2 2 1 1 1 0 [3-25]
2

An equation of this type must be written for each node along the surface shown in
Figure 3-7. So when a convection boundary condition is present, an equation like (3-25) is
used at the boundary and an equation like (3-24) is used for the interior points.
Equation (3-25) applies to a plane surface exposed to a convection boundary condition.
It will not apply for other situations, such as an insulated wall or a corner exposed to
a convection boundary condition. Consider the corner section shown in Figure 3-8. The
energy balance for the corner section is
1 1
2 2 2 2
If ,

2 1 2 1 1 0 [3-26]

Other boundary conditions may be treated in a similar fashion, and a convenient sum-
mary of nodal equations is given in Table 3-2 for different geometrical and boundary
situations. Situations and are of particular interest since they provide the calcula-
tion equations that may be employed with curved boundaries, while still using uniform
increments in and .

Nomenclature for nodal Nomenclature for nodal

equation with convective equation with convection at
boundary condition. a corner section.

m 1, n m, n
y
m, n 1 2
T y T
m 1, n m, n y
m, n 1
y m 1, n 1
x
q 2
x
m, n 1
x
2 Surface
x
 Numerical Method of Analysis

Summary of nodal formulas for finite-difference calculations. (Dashed lines indicate element volume.)†

( ) Interior node 0 1 1 1 1 4

1 1 1 1 1 4

1 1

( ) Convection boundary node 0 1 2 2

2 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 2 Bi
2 Bi

1 Bi

( ) Exterior corner with convection boundary 0 2 1 1 2 1

1 1 1 2 Bi
1 Bi

Bi
1

( ) Interior corner with convection boundary 0 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 3

1 Bi 1 1 1 1 2
3 Bi

Bi
1 1

1
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

(Continued).
Nodal equation for equal increments in and
Physical situation (second equation in situation is in form for Gauss-Seidel iteration)

(e) Insulated boundary 0 1 1 2 1 4

1 1 2 1 4
m, n 1
Insulated

m 1, n m, n

y
m, n 1

(f ) Interior node near curved boundary‡ 0 2 2 2 2 2 1 1

1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
m, n 1
h,T 3
2 c x y
1 b x
m 1, n m, n m 1, n
a x
y
m, n 1

x x

(g) Boundary node with convection along 0 1 2 1 2 2

2 2 1 2 3
1
curved boundary—node 2 for ( ) above§
1 2 1 2 2
2 2 2 1 2

† Convection boundary may be converted to insulated surface by setting 0 Bi 0.

‡ This equation is obtained by multiplying the resistance by 4 1 1
§ This relation is obtained by dividing the resistance formulation by 2.

Nine-Node Problem EXAMPLE 3-5

Consider the square of Figure Example 3-5. The left face is maintained at 100 C and the top face
at 500 C, while the other two faces are exposed to an environment at 100 C:
10 W m2 C and 10 W m C

The block is 1 m square. Compute the temperature of the various nodes as indicated in
Figure Example 3-5 and the heat flows at the boundaries.

The nodal equation for nodes 1, 2, 4, and 5 is

1 1 1 1 4 0

The equation for nodes 3, 6, 7, and 8 is given by Equation (3-25), and the equation for 9 is given
by Equation (3-26):
10 1 1
3 10 3
 Numerical Method of Analysis

Nomenclature for Example 3-5.

= 500˚C

1 2 3

= 100˚C
1m
4 5 6

100˚C

7 8 9

1m

The equations for nodes 3 and 6 are thus written

2 2 6 567 4 67 3 0
2 5 3 9 67 4 67 6 0

The equations for nodes 7 and 8 are given by

2 4 8 167 4 67 7 0
2 5 7 9 67 4 67 8 0

and the equation for node 9 is

6 8 67 2 67 9 0
We thus have nine equations and nine unknown nodal temperatures. We shall discuss solution
techniques shortly, but for now we just list the answers:

1 280.67
2 330.30
3 309.38
4 192.38
5 231.15
6 217.19
7 157.70
8 184.71
9 175.62
The heat flows at the boundaries are computed in two ways: as conduction flows for the 100 and
500 C faces and as convection flows for the other two faces. For the 500 C face, the heat flow
the face is
10 500 280 67 500 330 30 500 309 38 1
2

4843 4 W m

The heat flow of the 100 C face is

10 280 67 100 192 38 100 157 70 100 1
2

3019 W m
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

The convection heat flow the right face is given by the convection relation

10 1 309 38 100 217 19 100 175 62 100 1

3 2

1214 6 W m

Finally, the convection heat flow the bottom face is

10 1 100 100 1 157 70 100 184 71 100 175 62 100 1

3 2 2

600 7 W m

The total heat flow out is

out 3019 1214 6 600 7 4834 3 W m

This compares favorably with the 4843.4 W/m conducted into the top face. A solution of this
example using the Excel spreadsheet format is given in Appendix D.

From the foregoing discussion we have seen that the numerical method is simply a means
of approximating a continuous temperature distribution with the finite nodal elements. The
more nodes taken, the closer the approximation; but, of course, more equations mean more
cumbersome solutions. Fortunately, computers and even programmable calculators have
the capability to obtain these solutions very quickly.
In practical problems the selection of a large number of nodes may be unnecessary
because of uncertainties in boundary conditions. For example, it is not uncommon to have
uncertainties in , the convection coefficient, of 15 to 20 percent.
The nodal equations may be written as
11 1 12 2 1 1
21 1 22 2 2
31 1 3
....................................
1 1 2 2

where 1, 2 are the unknown nodal temperatures. By using the matrix notation
1 1
11 12 1
2 2
21 22
31
..................
1 2

Equation (3-27) can be expressed as

 Numerical Method of Analysis

and the problem is to find the inverse of such that

Designating 1 by

11 12 1
1 21 22
..................
1 2

the final solutions for the unknown temperatures are written in expanded form as

1 11 1 12 2 1
2 21 1
...................................
1 1 2 2

Clearly, the larger the number of nodes, the more complex and time-consuming the solution,
even with a high-speed computer. For most conduction problems the matrix contains a
large number of zero elements so that some simplification in the procedure is afforded. For
example, the matrix notation for the system of Example 3-5 would be

4 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 600
1 4 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 500
0 2 4.67 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 567
1 0 0 4 1 0 1 0 0 4 100
0 1 0 1 4 1 0 1 0 5 0
0 0 1 0 2 4.67 0 0 1 6 67
0 0 0 2 0 0 4.67 1 0 7 167
0 0 0 0 2 0 1 4.67 1 8 67
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2.67 9 67

We see that because of the structure of the equations the coefficient matrix is very sparse. For
this reason iterative methods of solution may be very efficient. The Gauss-Seidel iteration
method is probably the most widely used for solution of these equations in heat transfer
problems, and we shall discuss that method in Section 3-7.

Several software packages are available for solution of simultaneous equations, including
MathCAD (22), TK Solver (23), Matlab (24), and Microsoft Excel (25, 26, 27). The spread-
sheet grid of Excel is particularly adaptable to formulation, solution, and graphical displays
associated with the nodal equations. Details of the use of Excel as a tool for such problems
are presented in Appendix D for both steady-state and transient conditions.
 Steady-State Conduction—Multiple Dimensions

General conduction node.

An example of an Excel worksheet is shown in Figure 3-9, which includes a schematic

of a protruding fin cooled by a convection environment, numerical solution displayed to
match the geometric configuration, and four graphical presentations of the results. While one
might regard this presentation as graphical overkill, it does illustrate a variety of options
available in the Excel format. Several examples are discussed in detail in Appendix D,
including the effects of heat sources and radiation boundary conditions.
Other methods of solution include a transient analysis carried through to steady state
(see Chapter 4), direct elimination (Gauss elimination [9]), or more sophisticated iterative
techniques [12]. An Excel spreadsheet solution treating Example 3-5 as a transient problem
carried through to steady state is given Appendix D.
 Numerical Formulation in Terms of Resistance Elements

Up to this point we have shown how conduction problems can be solved by finite-difference
approximations to the differential equations. An equation is formulated for each node and
the set of equations solved for the temperatures throughout the body. In formulating the
equations we could just as well have used a resistance concept for writing the heat transfer
between nodes. Designating our node of interest with the subscript and the adjoining nodes
with subscript , we have the general-conduction-node situation shown in Figure 3-10. At
steady state the net heat input to node must be zero or

where is the heat delivered to node by heat generation, radiation, etc. The can take
the form of convection boundaries, internal conduction, etc., and Equation (3-31) can be
set equal to some residual for a relaxation solution or to zero for treatment with matrix and
iterative methods.
No new information is conveyed by using a resistance formulation, but some workers
may find it convenient to think in these terms. When a numerical solution is to be performed
that takes into account property variations, the resistance formulation is particularly useful.
In addition, there are many heat-transfer problems where it is convenient to think of con-
vection and radiation boundary conditions in terms of the thermal resistance they impose on
the system. In such cases the relative magnitudes of convection, radiation, and conduction
resistances may have an important influence on the behavior of the thermal model. We
shall examine different boundary resistances in the examples. It will be clear that one will
want to increase thermal resistances when desiring to impede the heat flow and decrease
the thermal resistance when an increase in heat transfer is sought. In some cases the term
is employed as a synonym for thermal resistance, following this line of
thinking.
For convenience of the reader Table 3-3 lists the resistance elements that correspond
to the nodes in Table 3-2. Note that all resistance elements are for unit depth of material
and . The nomenclature for the table is that refers to the resistance on the
positive side of node , refers to the resistance on the negative side of node
, and so on.

General conduction
node.

3 4

3
4
Etc.
2