SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS  2 mitotic division leads to the formation of 2 celled & 3 celled pollengrain. 25.

he formation of 2 celled & 3 celled pollengrain. 25. Development of female gametophyte is monosporic development. Why? :- – Embryosac developed Anemophily Hydrophily Entomophily
from single haploid megaspore. (wind pollination) (water pollination) (Insect pollination)
1. Flower: – Reproductive Structure of angiosperm 26. Structure of Ovule :-  light , non sticky and  Colourless, Nector less  Large, colourful
2. Androecium :– male sex organ. consists of stamens (two parts. Filament & bilobed anther). dry pollen grains. &Odourless flowers
3. Microsporogenesis :- formation of microspore from Microspore mother cells or pollen mother cells  Well exposed stamens.  Unisexual flowers  Produce nector.
 Feathery stigma.  Pollen grains  Produce fragrance.
through meiosis
 Colourless, are protected by It may be pleasant
4. How many microsporangia are present in a young anther ::– Four. ( two in each lobe) 13. Pollengrains are preserved as fossils. Why?:- Due to the presence of Sporopollenin (Organic material mucilagenous covering. (Jasmine, Rose etc,)
 nectorless.
5. How many pollensacs are present in a mature anther – Two resistant to high temperature, strong acids & alkali & cannot be degraded by enzymes)  Odourless (Do not have  Sticky and unwettable or foul (Rafflessia,
6. Stages of Microsporogenesis & gametogenesis ::- 14. Germ pores :– Thin walled area in exine where sporopollenin is [Link] tube comes out through 27. Funicle :– Stalk of the ovule stigma Aristolochia)
smell)
 Each cell of Sporogenous tissue ( mass of tissue occupy the central portion of germ pore during germination. 28. Hilum :– Junction between ovule and funicle.  Pollen grains are  Female flowers have  Sticky and spiny
microsporangium) forms Microspore mother cell /Pollen mother cell (PMC) 15. Pollentube :– Tube formed by pollengrain & it carry 2 male gametes into the embryosac 29. Nucellus – Multicellular mass of tissue with resrerve food materials ( Give food to Embryo sac). produced in large long coiled stalk pollen grains.
 PMC undergo Meiosis to form Microspore tetrad (group of 4 microspores) 16. Vegetative cell :– Bigger cell. Contain reserve food materials. Large irregularly shaped nucleus. 30. Integuments :– Protective covering. (Outer and inner integuments) quantities.  Female flowers remain  Sticky stigma.
31. Micropyle :– Small opening through which pollen tube enters into the ovule.  Single ovule in each submerged e .g., Rose, Sunflower,
 Later Microspores separate & develop into Pollen grain / Male gametophyte 17. Generative cell :– Small cell. Float in the cytoplasm of vegetative cell. Spindle shaped with dense
32. Chalaza :– Opposite side of micropyle where integuments originate ovary.  Male flowers are Jasmine, Orchids etc.
 Haploid nucleus in pollengrain undergo Mitosis to form 2 celled pollengrain (vegetative & cytoplasm and nucleus. released on to the
33. Emryosac / female gametophyte :– Central oval shaped structure  Numerous small
generative cell) 18. Pollen bank :– Storage of pollengrains in liquid nitrogen (-196°c). Pollen bank can be used in crop flowers are packed into surface of water and
breeding programmes. 34. Egg apparatus :- 3 cells at micropylar region of embryosac ( 2 synergids and 1 egg cell) carried by water
 Generative cell nucleus undergo Mitosis to form 3 celled Pollengrain (vegetative cell & 2 male an inflorescence.
19. Pollen viability :– Period for which pollengrains remain functional. 35. Antipodals :- 3 cells at chalazal region  Unisexual flowers. currents to the surface
gametes)
20. Effect of pollengrain :– Cause allergies & lung disorders (asthma, bronchitis). eg., Pollengrain of 36. Secondary nucleus / Polar nucleus :- Central diploid cell of stigma
7. Structure of Microsporangium :–– 4 wall layers ( Epidermis, Endothecium, Middle layers, & Tapetum) +
Parthenium /carrot grass 37. Pollination :- transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma e.g., Coconut, rice, wheat,  Long, ribbon like pollen
Sporogenous tissue ( central mass of tissue con
contain Microspore mother cells).
38. Autogamy / Self pollination :- Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of same flower grasses, maize, date palm etc. grain
8. Functions of Epidermis, Endothecium & Middle layers ::– Protection & dehiscence of anther to release 21. Pollen tablets & syrups are in use by people these days. Why? : - (a) Pollen grains are rich in nutrients .
39. Features of flower which shows complete autogamy :- (a) synchrony in pollen release & stigma e.g., Vallisneria, Zostera.
pollen (b) Pollen consumption increase the performance of athletes & race horses.
receptivity (b) anther and stigma should lie close to each other. 48. Pollen Pistil Interaction :-
9. Tapetum :– Innermost multinucleated wall contain dense cytoplasm. 22. Gynoecium (pistil) :– Female sex organ consists of carpels (Ovary, style & stigma)
40. Chasmogamous flowers – Flowers with exposed anther and stigma  All events from pollen deposition of stigma until the entry of pollen tube into ovule .
10. Function of Tapetum :- Give food to developing poll
pollen grains 23. Megasporogenesis :– Formation of megaspore from megasporemother cell through meiosis.
41. Cleistogamous flowers :- (a) Closed flowers (b) Anther and stigma lie close to each other(c)  Through chemical conversation between pollen & stigma Pistil recognize right pollen and
11. Structure of young anther , enlarged view of microsporangium & mature dehisced anther 24. Stages of Megasporogenesis & formation of Embryosac :-
Autogamous (d) No chance of cross pollination (e) Assured seed set in the absence of pollinators (f) wrong pollen, then pistil accept (Promote pollen germination) or reject (prevent pollen
 Megaspore mother cell (single cell at mycropylar end of nucellus) develops within the Ovule
No chance for variation (g) Causes inbreeding depression germination) pollengrain.
(megasporangium)
42. Geitonogamy – Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of another flower of the same plant 49. Outbreeding devices :-
 MMC undergo meiosis to form 4 megaspores (Linear tetrad)
(Genetically similar to autogamy but functionally similar to cross pollination)  Self incompatibility :- genetic mechanism to prevent pollen germination / pollen tube
 Three megaspores degenerate .
43. Xenogamy / Cross pollination – Transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to stigma of the formation.
 Functional megaspore undergo 3repeated mitotic divisions (8 nucleus formed)
flower of another plant of same species. Pollen grains are transferred by external agencies.  Pollen release & stigma receptivity not synchronized ( Anther & stigma mature at different
 Out of 8 nucleus, 3 located at chalazal region, 3 located at micropylar region , 2 remain in the
44. Advantage of xenogamy :- (a) Ensure genetic recombination and variation (b) Reduce inbreeding time)
12. Structure of pollengrain centre.
depression  Anther & stigma are placed at different positions.
 Spherical in shape about 20-25
25 micrometers in diameter.  Cytokinesis leads to the formation of 7 celled 8 nucleate stage called Embryosac / Female
45. Agents of pollination :- Abiotic (wind & water) & Biotic ( animals, insects, bats, birds etc)  Unisexual flowers. (a) Monoecious plants - prevent autogamy but not geitonogamy. (b)
 Two wall layers. Exine (Hard outer laye
layer , made up of sporopollenin) & Intine (thin inner layer, made up gametophyte
46. Pollen robbers/ Nector robbers – Insects consume pollen grains / nector without bringing about Dioecious plant – prevent both autogamy & geitonogamy.
of cellulose & pectin) 50. Artificial hybridisation :-Process of crossing of two genetically different organisms artificially.
pollination.
 Central haploid nucleus & dense cytoplasm which is surrounded by plasmamembrane. Later vacoule 47. Characters of Anemophilous, hydrophilous & entomophilous flowers :- Steps :-
develop pushing nucleus towards periphery.  Selection of parents
 Emasculation – Removal of anther from the flower buds of female flower before maturity to prevent
self pollination.
 Bagging – Emasculated flowers are covered with a bag to prevent cross pollination.

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 Artificial pollination – pollen grains from male parent are dusted on stigma of female parent , when  Farmers do not have to buy hybrid seeds every year because apomixis preserve good 16. Recognition sequence :- Specific & short sequence (composed of less than 10 base pairs) that is
stigma attain receptivity. characters over generations for crop plants. recognised by restriction enzymes and they cut DNA at that point.
 Rebagging to prevent cross pollination 83. Dormancy :- Temporary inactive state of a viable seed. 17. How many restriction enzymes are known to be isolated? More than 900 restriction enzymes have
been isolated from 230 strains of bacteria each of which recognizes different recognition sequences.
 Tagging and labeling 84. Importance of seed dormancy :- (a) helps the storage of seeds . (b) help to use as food throughout the
18. Naming of Restriction Enzyme :-
 Seed set 63. Identify the figure & label the parts:
parts:- Monocot embryo year . (c) helps to raise crops in next season. (d) hard seed coat provide protection to young embryo.  First letter comes from genus name
51. Duble Fertilization :- 85. Seed viability :- Ability of seed to germinate & producing seedlings. Lupine (Lupinus arcticus) is oldest  second two letters come from the first two letters of species name of the prokaryotic cell from
Syngamy :- Male gamete (n) + female gamete/egg cell (n) →Zygote (2n) → embryo (2n) seed (flowered after 10,000 years of dormancy). 2000 year old viable seed:- seed of date palm which they were isolated
(excavated at King Herod’s Palace near Dead sea).  fourth letter denotes the strain
Triple fusion :- Male gamete (n) + Secondary nucleus(2n) → PEN (3n) → Endosperm (3n) 86. Diploid parts :- Zygote, Anther, Microsporangium, Sporogenous tissue, Microspore mother cells  Last letter is a romen number , denotes the order in which they are isolated from that strain of
(Pollen mother cells), Ovary, Nucellus, Megaspore mother cells , Secondary nucleus (polar nucleus) bacteria.
52. Expand PEN – Primary endosperm nucleus.
87. Haploid parts :-Microspores, Pollengrains, Male gamete, Megaspore, Egg (female gamete), Synergids,  eg. EcoRΙ isolated from Escherichia coli RY 13
53. Embryogenesis :- Formation of embryo from zygote 19. Palindrome in DNA :- sequence of base pairs that read the same on the two strands when
64. Scutellum – Single cotyledon of monocot embryo, situated towards the lateral side of the embryonal Antipodals.
 Zygote → proembryo→ Globular embryo → Heart shaped embryo → Mature embryo orientation of reading is kept the same.
axis.
 Proembryo :- 2 celled – basal cell towards mycropyle & terminal cell towards chalaza eg. 5' -GAATTC - 3'
65. Coleoptyle – Covering of plumule BIOTECHNOLOGY - PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES 3' -CTTAAG - 5'
 Terminal cell divides to form multicellular globular, heart shaped & mature embryo.
66. Coleorhiza – Covering
overing of radicle. 1. Biotechnology : - Branch of science which deals with the manipulation of organisms, animals, plant 20. What is meant by sticky ends? When a fragment of DNA is cleaved by restriction enzyme, Two
 Basal cell divides to form a filamentous suspensor (it pushes the developing embryo into the cells or their components to generate products useful to mankind.
67. Aleurone layer :- Proteinacous layer which separate endosperm & cotyledon in monocot seed. separate strands obtained. Both are overhanging piece of DNA.
endosperm and absorb nutrients) 2. Definition given by EFB (European Federation of Biotechnology ) :- Biotechnology is the integration
68. Fruit :-fertilized ovary 21. Why are they called sticky ends? They form hydrogen bonds with their complementary cut counter
of natural science, organisms, cells, parts thereof and molecular analogues for products and services. parts.
69. Seed :- Fertilized Ovule. Basis of agriculture.
3. Principles of Biotechnology :- Genetic engineering & Bioprocess engineering 22. DNA ligase / Molecular glue :- Enzyme used to join two fragments of DNA
70. Albuminous / endospermous seed ::- Seeds with endosperm. eg., rice, wheat, at, coconut
4. Genetic engineering :- Technique to alter chemistry of genetic material (DNA or RNA) to introduce 23. Cloning vectors :- vehicles which are used to transfer gene from one cell to another. eg., Plasmids and
71. Exalbuminous / Non endospermous seed ::- Seeds without endosperm. eg., pea these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organisms. bacteriophages
72. True fruit – develop from the ovary . e.g., mango 5. Bioprocess engineering :- Maintenance of sterile environment in chemical engineering process to 24. Plasmid :- Small ,double stranded, extra chromosomal, self replicating, circular DNA.
54. Zygote is dormant for some time in fertilized ovule. Why? ::- Endosperm provide food to developing 73. False fruit – develop from the part of the flower other than ovary. e .g., Apple , Strawberry , Cashew . enable the growth of only the desired microbe/ eukaryotic cell in large quantities for the manufacture 25. Features of cloning vector:- (1) Origin of replication (2) Selectable markers (3) Cloning site
embryo. So zygote divide only after certain amount of endosperm is formed. Here Thalamus is the edible part. of biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines , enzymes etc. 26. Origin of replication (Ori) :- Specific sequence from where replication starts. It is responsible for
55. Endosperm development :- 74. Pericarp :- Fruit wall 6. Techniques of genetic engineering :- (a) Creation of recombinant DNA (b) Gene cloning (making controlling the copy number of linked DNA.
 PENEN undergoes free nuclear divisions to form many triploid nuclei . This is liquid endosperm / identical copies) (c) Gene transfer 27. Copy number :- number of copies of particular plasmid / chromosome present in a cell
75. Perisperm :- Remnants of nucellus in the seed. eg., black pepper, beet
nuclear endosperm 7. What is recombinant DNA / rDNA ? Artificially made DNA that is composed of a combination of DNA 28. Selectable markers :- A gene which helps to identify and eliminate recombinants/ transformants
76. Testa :- Outer hard seed coat developed from outer integument of ovule sequences from two or more organisms.
 Then cell wall formed from periphery towards centre to form solid endosperm /multicellular from non-recombinants/non-transformants
77. Tegmen :- Inner thin seed coat developed from inner integument of ovule. 8. Who constructed the first rDNA ? Stanly Cohen & Herbert Boyer(1972) 29. Artificially reconstructed plasmid vector from the col EΙ plasmid of [Link] :- pBR322 . It was named
endosperm 78. Parthenocarpy :- Formation of fruit without fertilization. Can be Induced by auxin & giberellin. eg., 9. Creation of First recombinant DNA :- after Boliver and Rodriguez (two scientists) . The letter ‘p ‘ represent plasmid, ‘ B’ represent Boliver
 Coconut water from tender coconut – Liquid endosperm. White kernel – Solid endosperm banana, seedless grapes  Isolate antibiotic resistance gene from plasmid of Salmonella typhimureum and ‘ R’ - Rodriguez.
56. Parts of embryo :- Embryonal axis & Cotyledon 79. Polyembryony :- Formation of more than one embryo in the seed . eg., Seeds of orange, citrus, mango.  Piece of DNA was cut at specific site by restriction endonuclease & linked it to the plasmid of 30. Selectable markers in pBR322 ? ampicillin resistance gene (ampR) and tetracycline resistance gene
57. Epicotyl :- Portion of embryonal axis above the level of cotyledon. Terminate with plumule 80. Reason for poly embryony :- (a) Presence of more than one egg cells & all get fertilized (b) Presence of Escherichia coli. By DNA ligase. (tetR)
58. Hypocotyl :- Portion of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledon . Term
Terminate
inate with radicle.  These rDNA was transferred to [Link] host. 31. Function of rop in pBR322 :- codes for the proteins involved in the replication of plasmids
more than one embryosac (c) Many embryos develop from parts like synergids, antipodals, nucellus,
59. Plumule /stem tip :- develops into shoot 10. Gene cloning :- rDNA replicated by using host DNA polymerase enzyme and made multiple copies. 32. Identify the figure.
integuments etc
11. Tools of recombinant DNA technology :- (1) Restriction enzymes (2) Polymerase enzymes (3) Ligase or
60. Radicle /root tip :- develops into root. 81. Apomixis :- Seed formation without fertilization. It mimic sexual reproduction. Molecular glue (4) Vectors (5) Host
61. Cotyledon :- First formed [Link] nourishment to developing seedling. In dicot plants 2 cotyledons &  Diploid egg cell may develop into embryo without fertilization 12. Nuclease :- Enzyme that cut nucleic acids.
in monocot plant 1 cotyledon present.  Cells of nucellus develops into embryo & pu pushed into embryosac 13. Types of nucleases :- (1) Exonucleases (Cut the DNA at the end) (2) Endonucleases
62. Identify the figure & label the parts ::- Dicot embryo.  eg., Some species of Asteraceae & Grasses. (Cut at specific site within the DNA)
14. Restriction endonuclease/ Molecular scissors :- enzyme that cut DNA into fragments at specific sites
82. Apomictic seeds are used in hybrid industry. Why? ::-
within molecules
 Apomixis helps in the production of hybrid seeds with a combination of desirable characters. 15. Which is the first restriction enzyme ? Hind ΙΙ from Haemophilus influenzae.
 In apomictic hybrid seeds, there is no segregation of characters .
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33. How can we identify recombinants / transformants using selectable markers? 45. Spooling :- Process by which DNA threads wind on a reel. Last step of Isolation of DNA  Separation of Products
 The foreign DNA is ligated at a restriction site present in one of the two antibiotic resistance 46. Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease :- Purified DNA molecules are incubated with  Purification of Products
genes. (eg. Foreign DNA is inserted at the BamHΙ site of tetracycine resistance gene in the restriction endonuclease . Vector DNA is also cut with same restriction enzymes to get fragments  Addition of Preservative
vector pBR322) with complementary sticky ends  Clinical trials for drugs
 Recombinant plasmids lose tetracycline resistance due to insertion of foreign DNA  Quality control test
 Simultaneous plating of bacteria on ampicillin containing medium and tetracycine containing
medium BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS
 Recombinants grow in ampicillin medium but not on tetracycline medium.
 Non-recombinants will grow on the medium containing both the antibiotics. 53. Why should the host cell be made competent ? To take up hydrophylic DNA molecule from external 1. Uses of Genetically Modified Organisms. (GMO) :-
34. Insertional inactivation :- Inactivation of an enzyme due to inactivation of a gene as a result of insertion medium.  It makes crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses
of foreign DNA (Alternative selectable marker) 54. Competent host -The cell which is capable of taking up alien DNA  reduce the use of chemical pesticides
35. How insertional inactivation is used to identify recombinants? 55. How can we make host cell competent?  Helped to reduce post harvest loses
 A recombinant DNA is inserted within the coding sequence of an enzyme β galactosidase. So 47. Separation using Gel electrophoresis :-  DNA enters the bacterium through the pores in cell wall.  Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants
the enzyme is inactivated.  Negatively charged DNA molecules are forced to move towards anode under an electric field  The bacterial cell is treated with divalent cation such as calcium.  Enhanced nutritional value of food, eg., Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice (Golden rice)
 Recombinants do not produce colour. through agarose medium 2. Bt Cotton :- Genetically modified cotton plant with ‘cry’ gene. Bioinsecticide
 Incubate Recombinant DNA and bacterial cell on ice
 Non - recombinants gives bluish coloured colonies.  DNA fragments are separated according to their size through a sieving effect provided by 3. What does Bt stands for in Bt cotton ? Or Expand the letter B & t? Bacillus thuringiensis ( It is a soil
 Place this bacterial cell at 42° C which provides a heat shock & then Put them back on ice. Now
36. Cloning sites :- Recognition sites of restriction enzymes are called cloning sites. Vector need a single agarose gel ( natural polymer extracted from seaweeds) bacteria)
bacteria can take up the Recombinant DNA
recognition sequence/cloning sites for restriction enzymes. More than one cloning sites will generate  Smaller fragments move farther. 4. Name the toxic protein produced by Bacillus thuringiensis ? ‘Cry’ protein / Bt toxin (that kill insects
56. Microinjection - Recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell using
several DNA fragments which will complicate the gene cloning.  Separated DNA fragments can be visualised after staining with Ethidium bomide followed by like coleopterans, lepidopterans &dipterans)
micropipette.
37. Cloning sites / restriction sites present in pBR322 :- Hind ΙΙΙ , Cla Ι , EcoR Ι , BamH Ι, Sal Ι, Pvu Ι, Pst Ι, exposure to UV light 5. Name the specific gene that produce Bt toxin? ‘cry’ gene
57. Biolistics / Gene gun - High velocity microparticles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA and is
Pvu ΙΙ.  DNA appears as bright orange coloured bands. 6. Cry protein is harmless to bacillus. Why? The Bt toxin exist as inactive protoxins.
bombarded into the host cell (plant cell)
38. Transformation :- Process through which a foreign DNA is introduced into a host.  Separated bands of DNA are cut out from the agarose gel and extracted from gel piece. This 7. Explain the mechanism of insect resistance in Bt cotton ?
58. Recombinant protein - protein formed in a heterologous host (host which carry recombinant DNA)
39. Transformants :- Host bacterium which contain rDNA step is called Elution.  When an insect ingest the inactive toxin, it is converted into an active toxin due to the alkaline
59. Bioreactors :- Large vessel (100 – 1000 litres) in which raw materials are biologically converted into
40. Disarmed pathogen vectors :- Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifaciens & Retrovirus. pH of the gut which solubilise the crystals.
products
41. Agrobacterium Tumifaciens :- can deliver T-DNA to transform normal plant cells into a tumour.
60. Qualities of Bioreactor:-  The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and create pores that cause
These tumour cells produce chemicals required by pathogen. Tumour inducing plasmid (Ti plasmid) of
 An agitator system cell swelling and lysis and eventually leads to death of the insect.
Agrobacterium tumifaciens is modified into a cloning vector.
 Oxygen delivery system 8. ‘cry’ genes are insect group specific.
42. Retrovirus :- transform normal cells into cancerous in animal cells. Disarmed retrovirus are used as
 A foam control system  Name the gene that control corn borer insects? cryIAb
vector.
48. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) :- synthesis of multiple copies of gene invitro using two sets of  A temperature control system  Name the genes that control cotton bollworms ? cryIAc & cryIIAb
43. Process of Biotechnology (Steps of recombinant DNA technology) :- 9. RNA interference (RNAi) :- mRNA silencing / Silencing of mRNA due to complementary double
Primers and DNA Polymerase enzyme.  pH control system
 Isolation of DNA stranded RNA (dsRNA)
49. Primers :- Chemically synthesized oligonucleotides that are complementary to the regions of DNA.  Sampling ports for periodic withdrawal of culture
 Fragmentation of DNA by restriction endonuclease. 10. Meloidegyne incognitia. :- A nematode which infect roots of tobacco plants & cause reduction in the
50. DNA Polymerase enzyme - Enzyme responsible for forming new copies of DNA. 61. Two types of bioreactors :- (a) Stirred tank bioreactors ( Oxygen moves through a delivery system) (b)
 Separation of DNA fragments using Gel electrophoresis Sparged stirred-tank bioreactor ( surface area of the culture medium is increased by bubbling the yield.
51. Name the DNA Polymerase used in PCR :- Taq DNA Polymerase is isolated from a bacterium
 Amplification using PCR Thermus aquaticus. It remains active in high temperature (Thermostable) sterile air into the system) 11. What is the origin of RNAi ? It takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defense.
 Joining of DNA fragments into vector. 52. Explain the steps involved in PCR :- 62. Identify the figure & label the parts :- 12. What does complementary RNA (cRNA) mean? Copy of a strand of RNA that will bind to the
 Recombinant DNA is transferred into the host.  Denaturation - Treating DNA at high temperature about 94° C. Two strands of DNA separate appropriate region of the original molecule.
 Extraction using Bioreactor and each strand act as template. 13. In the process of RNAi, the source of cRNA :- (a) From an infection by viruses having RNA genome (b)
 Downstream processing.  Annealing - Temperature is lowered about 45° C. Two primers are added. They join with the 3 Transposons (mobile genetic elements)
44. Isolation of DNA - Procedure :- end of two templates. 14. How can we prevent nematode infestation through RNAi ?
 The cells are treated with enzymes to digest cell wall. ( Lysozyme - bacterial cell wall,  Extension -DNA Polymerase enzyme extend the primer by adding nucleotides.  Introduce nematode specific genes into tobacco plant using Agrobacterium vecor.
Cellulase - plant cell wall and Chitinase - fungal cell wall)  Amplification -the above process repeated many times to get billion copies of target DNA  Then that nematode specific genes produce both sense & antisense RNA
 Protease enzymes removes proteins. Ribonuclease removes RNA . Other molecules can be  Sense & antisense RNA’s are complementary to each other & bind together to form dsRNA
removed by appropriate treatments.  dsRNA bind to the mRNA of nematode & prevent the translation of mRNA
63. Downstream Processing :- All process after biosynthetic phase is collectively called Downstream
 The purified DNA is precipitated on the addition of chilled ethanol and are seen as threads in 15. Consequence of RNAi :- Nematode could not survive in transgenic tobacco plant (Plant got protection
processing .they include
suspension. from parasite)
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I I
16. What are the problems associated with insulin production? Insulin extracted from pancrease of pigs 31. Clones having mutated gene will not appear on photographic film. Why? because probe will not have 4. Population :- A group of similar individuals ( same species) living together, sharing or competing for 21. Immigration (I) – Number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat
habit from
causes allergy to some people. So the bacterium [Link] is used as a host in genetic engineering process. complimentarity with the mutated gene same resources, & interbreeding within a given area at a particular time. eg., Lotus plants in a pond & elsewhere during a given period. population Increase
17. Structure of insulin :- Insulin consists of two short polypeptide chains; chain A and chain B, that are 32. Trangenic animal :- Animal whose genome has been altered by introducing a foreign gene. Bacteria in a culture plate 22. Mortality (D) – Number of deaths in the population in a given period. population Decreases
linked together by disulphide bonds 33. Uses of transgenic animals:- 23. Emigration (E) – Number of individuals of the population who left the habitat during a given period.
18. What is the structural difference between Proinsulin & mature insulin ? In mammals, including  To study how genes are regulated & how they affect normal functions of the body and its 5. Population attributes :- Birth rate, death rate, sex ratio, age group etc. population Decreases
humans, insulin is synthesized as a prohormone (Proinsulin), which contains an extra stretch called the development eg., Study of complex factors involved in growth. 6. Birth rate :- Rate of production of new individuals in a population by birth per unit time. eg., In a pond, 24.
C peptide. This C peptide is removed during maturation . ( C peptide present in proinsulin . C  to study how genes contribute to the development of disease. ( Transgenic models exist for last year 20 lotus, 8 new lotus are added this year. Birth rate is 8/20 =0.4 offsprings per lotus per year
peptide absent in mature insulin) cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, & Alzheimers. 7. Death rate :- Rate of loss of individuals in a population per unit time by death. eg., Out of 40 fruit flies,
19. Which company prepared genetically engineered human insulin ? Eli Lilly , an American company in  To Produce biological products :- eg., human protein ,ἀ- 1-antitrypsin use to treat emphysema, 4 died. Death rate = 4/40 =0.1% individual per fruit fly in that period.
1983 Medicines for phenylketoneuria (PKU) & Cystic fibrosis , human protein enriched milk. 8. Sex ratio :- individual is either male or female. But population has sex ratio eg., 60% females & 40%
20. Steps involved in the preparation of genetically engineered insulin ?  To test the safety of vaccines :- eg., Trangenic mice –to test safety of polio vaccine. males in a population
 Prepare two DNA sequences corresponding to chain A & chain B of human insulin  To test safety of chemicals (toxicity / safety testing) :- Sensitive transgenic animals are exposed 9. Age group :- (a) Pre reproductive age groups – children (b) Reproductive age group - Young people  If N is the population density at time ‘t’, then its density at time ‘t+1’
 Introduced them in plasmids of [Link] to produce insulin chains. to toxic substances & effects studied. ,who add new members to the population (c) post reproductive age group – Older individuals Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]
 Chain A and B were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form 34. First transgenic cow :- Rosie 10. Age pyramid - Graphical representation of properties of various age groups. (% individuals of a given  Population density will increase if (B+I) > (D+E)
human insulin 35. Speciality of milk produced by Rosie :- Protein enriched milk (2.4g/l) .This milk contain human protein, age or age group). 25. Exponential /Geometric growth model ::- Growth curve is J shaped.. Initial slow growth or lag phase,
21. Figure showing maturation of proinsulin into insulin. alpha –lactalbumin & nutritionally more balanced product for human babies than natural cow milk. 11. Characteristics of age pyramid :- (a) shows age distribution of males & females in a combined followed by rapid growth/ exponential growth/ log phase.. Growth stops suddenly due to death of
36. Expand ELISA :- Enzyme Linked Immuno – Sorbent Assay. diagram. (b) shows nature of population, whether it is growing, stable or declining. individuals. eg., Insect population.
37. Expand GEAC :- Genetic Engineering Approval Committee( An Indian Government Organisation) 12. Expanding age pyramid – More number of pre-reproductive individuals. Population is growing. 26. Equation for exponential growth ::- dN/dt= rN ( dN/dt = [b-d]*N . [b-d]= r, here N - population density,
38. Aim of GEAC :- (1) validity of GM research and (2) safety of introducing GM organisms for public 13. Stable age pyramid – Pre-reproductive &reproductive individuals are almost equal. No increase or t- time, b- birthrate, d- death rate, rr- intrinsic rate of natural increase).
services decrease in population. 27. Intergral form of the exponential growth equations ::- Nt = N0ert ( Nt –population
population density at time t, N0
39. Patent- Right granted by Government to an inventor for his new invention. 14. Declining age pyramid – Pre-reproductive individuals are lesser in number. Large number of - initial density, e – base of natural logarithms, rr- intrinsic rate of natural increase)
40. Importants of granting Patent :- This will prevent others from making commercial use of that invention reproductive individuals. 28. Species undergo exponential growth can reach great population densities in short time. why? (a)
22. Gene Therapy :- collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed
41. Biopatent – Patent granted for biological products and processes. There is an unlimitedited supply of resources (b) There is no environ
environmental
mental resistance/ check eg.,(1)
eg.,(1 Slow
in a child / embryo. (Functional genes are inserted into patient’s cell to treat hereditary disease. It
42. Biopiracy- Unauthorised use of bioresources by multinational companies & other organisations growing animal like elephant could reach enormous numbers in the absence of environmental
envi
compensate for the non-functional gene)
,without compensatory payment. resistance / check (2)) bacterial culture reach enormous amount if they provi provide
de unlimited supply of
23. Name the disease which was successfully corrected by gene therapy for the first time ? . Adenosine
43. Reason for biopiracy :- Developed countries are rich financially but poor in biodiversity & traditional food & space
deaminase (ADA) deficiency
knowledge. In contrast developing & underdeveloped countries are rich in biodiversity & traditional 29. Environmental resistance :- Things that limit the growth of population. ( predators, disease,
24. In which year first clinical gene therapy was performed and to whom ? In 1990 to a 4 year old girl.
knowledge. This inequality leads to biopiracy competition, lack of food, fire, flood , drought etc)
25. Function of Adenosine deaminase enzyme ? Activate immune system 15. Population density / Population size :- Number of individuals present per unit area at a given time.
44. Examples of biopiracy :- 30. Logistic growth model / verhulst pearl logistic growth ::- S shaped growth th curve. Initial slow growth
26. Gene therapy – Procedure :- indicated by the letter N.
 In 1997, Indian Basmathi was crossed with semidwarf varieties by an American company and (lag phase) followed by rapid growth (exponential /log phase) . When environmental resistance come
 Lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture outside the body. 16. How can we measure population density ?
claimed as a new invention & got patent on Basmathi rice through US Patent and Trademark Stationary phase)
into play / when carrying capacity reaches, growth slows down (Stationary phase
 A functional ADA cDNA is then introduced into these lymphocytes using retroviral vector & are  In number of individuals of a population
office. This allowed the company to sell a new variety of Basmathi in US &abroad. 31. Carrying capacity (K) :-Maximum
Maximum n number
umber of individuals of a particular species that can live in a
returned to the patient.  In % cover / biomass ( e.g., 200 parthenium plant and one huge banyan tree in an area. The
 Turmeric & Neem are some of the products have patents in other countries. particular area.
 Lymphocytes are not immortal, so periodic transfusion is necessary. role of banyan tree in that community is greater than parthenium)
45. Legal actions against biopiracy :- 32. Equation for logistic growth :- dN/dt =rN [K [K-N/k]
27. How gene therapy is practiced for a permanent cure? Gene therapy at embryonic stage (ADA gene  Relative population density. ( e .g., The number of fish caught /trap is used to measure total
 Many countries are developing laws to prevent Biopiracy 33. Which growth model is realistic or natural? Why? Logistic growth model. Resources for growth for
from bonemarrow is introduced into cells at early embryonic stage) population density of fish in the lake)
 Indian Government cleared second amendment of the Indian Patents Bill , that take such issues most animal populations are re finite & become limiting sooner or later.
28. Alternative methods for gene therapy :- (a) Bone marrow transplantation (b) Enzyme replacement  Counting the colonies in a bacterial culture
into consideration. 34. Identify the growth models
therapy( functional ADA is given by injection) . But these are not completely curative.  Indirect method – In tiger reserves tiger census is done on pug marks (foot prints)and fecal
29. Molecular diagnostic methods :- (a) PCR based on amplification of DNA (b) ELISA based on antigen matter
antibody reaction. (c) Radioactive probe (d) rDNA technology ORGANISMS AND POPULATION 17. Population growth :- Number of individuals added in a population per unit time due to birth &
30. How do radioactive probes works? immigration over the death & emigration.
 A single stranded DNA /RNA, tagged with radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridize 1. Ecology :- Study of organisms in relation to their environment (interactions among organisms & also
18. What are the physical factors that affect population density ? (a) Food availability (b) Predation
to its complementary DNA in a clone of cells with their environment)
pressure (c) Weather
 Then detection using autoradiography. 2. Four levels of biological Organisation :- Organism → Popula on → Communi es →Biomes
19. What are the four basic processes that affect population density :- Natality, Mortality, Immigration &
3. Organism :- Individual form of life . Body made up of organs . cannot survive independently. Adapted
 Clone having mutated gene will not appear on photographic film Emigration
to their environment for survival & reproduction . eg., plants, animals, bacteria etc.
20. Natality (B) – Number of births in a population during a given period. Population increase
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35. Darwinian fitness :- relative measure of reproductive success of an organism .Population evolve to pollination success will be reduced, unless orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the 55. Adaptations of prey to protect from predation in animals:- (a) Camouflaged (cryptically coloured to 3. Natural ecosystem :- Terrestrial ecosystem ( forest, grassland, desert etc) & Aquatic ecosystem ( fresh
maximize their , reproductive fitness/Darwinian fitness (high r value) resemblance of its petals to the female bee. avoid being detected easily by predator. eg., certain insects & frogs (b) Some are poisonous & so water & salt water)
36. Life history variation :- 43. Parasitism (+ -) : interaction where one species (parasite) depends on the other species (host) for food avoided by predator. eg., Monarch butterfly is distasteful to its predator (bird) due to poisonous 4. Artificial ecosystem / Man made ecosystem :-Dam, Tree plantations, Aquarium, etc
 Certain organism breed only once in their life time( eg., bamboo, pacific salmon fish). Others and shelter, host is harmed , parasite is benefited. ( Parasites and host self-evolve)
chemical content in the body. 5. Biotic component :- Living components of an ecosystem (Producer, consumer, decomposer)
breed many times during their life time. eg., Most birds & mammals 44. Adaptations of parasites :- (a) Loss of unnecessary sense organs (b) Hooks and sucker (c) Loss of
digestive system (d) High Reproductive capacity 56. Adaptations of prey to protect from predation in plants :- (a) Thorns in cactus, opuntia, Acacia etc (b) 6. Abiotic component :- Non living component of an ecosystem :- temperature, light, soil, water etc.
 Some produce large number of small- sized offspring ( eg., Oysters, pelagic fishes). Others
produce small number of large- sized offspring ( eg., birds, mammals) 45. What are the effects of parasites on their host? (a) Reduce the survival of host (b) Growth and Poisonous chemical content kill insects (c) Poisonous cardiac glycosides seen in calotropis (d) 7. Stratification :- Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels in an ecosystem
37. Life history variation is evolved. Why? Variations have evolved in relation to the stresses created by reproductive rate of host reduced (c) Render the host vulnerable to its predators by making them Presence of alkaloids (nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine , opium etc ) against grazers & browsers 8. Productivity :- Rate of biomass /Organic matter produced per unit area during a given period of time. It
abiotic & biotic components of the area in which they live. weak (d) Reduce the population density of host 57. Phytophagous insects :- Insects which are feeding on plant sap ( eg., 25% insects) is expressed in 𝑔 𝑦𝑟 .
38. Population interactions:- Interaction between different populations (In nature, organisms cannot live 46. Ectoparasites :- depend on the external surface of the host. eg., (a) head lice on humans (b) ticks on 58. Competition (- -) :- Interaction between two organism for same resource. 9. Primary productivity :- Rate of biomass produced per unit area during a given period of time by plants
in isolation. They interact in different ways to form a biological community). dogs (c) Copepods on marine fish (d) Cuscuta – Total stem parasite  Interspecific competition:- Competition between unrelated species for the same resource. through photosynthesis ( Rate of biomass production at producer level).
39. Interspecific interactions - Interactions of populations of two different species ( may be beneficial , 47. Endoparasites :- take shelter within the body of the host organism . eg., (a) Liverfluke,
eg., in some shallow south American lakes visiting flamingoes & native fishes compete for 10. Gross primary productivity (GPP) :- Rate of total biomass production by plants through
harmful or neutral) (b)Plasmodium
48. Is female mosquito is a parasite? No. It act as a vector. It needs blood only for reproduction, not for common food, zooplankton photosynthesis.
40. Types of Interactions :-
food.  Interference competition :- The feeding efficiency of one species is reduced due to the 11. Net primary productivity (NPP) – Producer use some biomass for life processes ,balance energy is NPP.
49. Brood parasitism – seen in parasitic bird e.g., between cuckoo & crow . Cuckoo lays its eggs in the interfering & inhibitory presence of the other species even if resources are abundant
nest of its host, Crow for incubation, hatching &rearing of youngones. The eggs of cuckoo resembles NPP = GPP – R (Respiratory loss)
Name of Interaction Species A Species B + Positive effect - Detrimental effect  Competitive exclusion :- When resources are limited, competitively superior species will slowly
0 Neutral effect the eggs of crow in size, shape & colour. Crow cannot detect the foreign egg. eliminate the other species. eg., Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos islands became extinct 12. Factors influencing primary productivity :- Sunlight, temperature, moisture, plants in that area,
Mutualism 50. Commensalism (+ 0) :- Interaction between two organisms in which one is benefited and other is
within a decade after goats were introduced due to the greater browsing capacity of the photosynthetic capacity, availability of nutrients etc.
+ + neither harmed or benefited.
introduced goats. 13. Secondary productivity :- Rate of biomass production at consumer level
_ 51. Commensalism – examples :-
Parasitism +  Gause’s competitive exclusion principle :- Two closely related species competing for the same 14. Annual NPP of biosphere - 170 billion tons .
 Orchid (+) growing on mango tree (0)
resources cannot co-exist indefinitely & the competitively inferior one will be eliminated 15. Productivity of ocean - 55 billion tons. (Light can penetrate upto 250m depth from water surface).
 Barnacles (+) grow on the back of the whale(0)
Commensalism + 0 eventually. 16. Decomposition :- Breakdown of organic materials into inorganic materials by decomposers. Oxygen
 Cattle egret (+) and grazing cattle(0) - The egret forage close to where the cattle are grazing.
 Competitive release :- A species is restricted to a small geographical area due to competitively requiring process.
Predation + _ As the cattle move the vegetation, insect come out. Otherwise it is difficult for egrets to find
superior species. When the superior species is experimentally removed, the small species 17. Detritus :– Dead remains of plants (leaves, barks etc) and animals including fecal matters. Detritus are
and catch insects.
flourish. eg., Connell’s field experiment. Competitively superior barnacle called Balanus raw material for decomposition.
Competition _ _  Sea anemone (0) and clown fish(+) - Stinging tentacles of sea anemone gives protection to fish
dominates the intertidal area & excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone 18. Detritivores :- Organism which breakdown detritus. e .g., Earth worm.
from predators.
Ammensalism _ 0  Co-existance by resource partitioning :- Two species choose different times for feeding or 19. Steps of Decomposition:-
52. Predation (+ -) :-Interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on another. Predator :–
different patterns of foraging. eg., Mc Arthur showed that 5 closely related species of  Fragmentation – Breakdown of organic matter into small fragments by detritivores.
organism which captures & feeds (+) , Prey :– organism consumed (-)
41. Mutualism (++) :- interaction in which both the interacting species are benefited warblers living on the same tree co-exist due to behavioural differences in their foraging  Leaching – Water soluble substances penetrate into the deeper layers of soil and get
53. Importance of predation :-
42. Mutualism- examples :- activities. No species is eliminated. precipitate as unavailable salts.
 Lichen – Symbiotic association between fungi and algae. Algae prepare food &give it to the  Predation act as a channel for energy transfer across trophic levels
59. Ammensalism (- 0) :- Interaction in which one species is harmed and the other is neither benefited  Catabolism – Enzymatic breakdown of detritus into inorganic materials. Enzymes are released
fungus. Fungus give shelter & protection.  Predators keep prey population under control (otherwise prey species become very high in nor harmed. eg., Penicillium (fungus) produces toxin- Penicillin which kills bacteria. But penicillium is by micro organisms.
 Mycorrhiza – Association between fungi& roots of higher plants. Fungus absorbs moisture and number & cause unstable ecosystem) eg.,uncontrolled spreading of a cactus (introduced into neither benefited nor harmed.  Humification – Formation of partially decomposed dark coloured amorphous substance
nutrients from the soil and give it to root. Root gives food to fungus. Australia) was brought under control only after cactus feeding predator from its natural habitat
 Pollination & seed dispersal. Examples are called Humus from detritus. Humus is resistant to microbial action and it is colloidal in nature.
was introduced (It is a way of biological control) .
(a) Fig tree & wasp .Female wasp , while searching for suitable place for egg laying, it pollinate So It undergoes slow decomposition . Humus is Reservoir of nutrients.
 Predators help in maintaining species diversity (by reducing competition among competing prey ECOSYSTEM
the inflorescence of fig tree. In return, fig gives some developing seeds as food.  Mineralisation – Humus is degraded by micro organisms and release inorganic nutrients.
species) eg., In the rocky intertidal communities of the American pacific coast, all the starfish
(b) Mediterranean orchid, Ophrys & bees. sexual deceit for pollination. One petal of its 1. Ecosystem :- Functional unit of nature . The sum total of interaction between biotic and abiotic 20. Factors affecting decomposition :-
flower resembles female bees in size , colour &markings. So male bee pseudocopulate (predator) were removed from an enclosed intertidal area, then more than 10 species of
components , which is capable of independent existence  Warm and moist environment favour decomposition
with the flower & dusted with pollen. When this bee pseudocopulate with another flower, invertebrates became extinct within a year due to interspecific competition.
2. Classification of Ecosystem :- Natural ecosystem & Artificial ecosystem  Decomposition rate becomes high if detritus, rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances .
it transfers pollen to it. If the female bee’s colour pattern change slightly during evolution, 54. Predators in nature are prudent. Why? If predator overexploits the prey, then the prey become
 Decomposition rate is slow in detritus, rich in lignin & chitin.
extinct. When there is a shortage of prey the predator will also become extinct.
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 Low temperature and lack of Oxygen inhibit decomposition .
21. Energy flow :- Unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers, consumers ,and decomposers .
22. Ultimate source of energy – Sun.
23. Photosynthetically active radiation
adiation (PAR) ::- Amount of light available for photosynthesis (visible light)
24. 10% law of energy transfer :- 10% of the energy in the food is fixed into their flesh & is available to
next trophic level. 90% of energy is utilized for life activities & released as heat energy
25. Food chain :- Linear sequence of energy transfer in an ecosystem by eating and being eaten 40. Pyramid of energy – Representation of energy used by organisms of successive trophic levels. Always
26. Producer :- Organism which produce food using sunlight upright because energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional.
27. Consumer :- Organism which depend on plants for their food
28. Primary consumer :- herbivores
erbivores which eat plants
29. Secondary consumer :- Animals which eat primary consumers
30. Teritiary consumer :- Animals which eat secondary consumers
31. Grazing food chain (GFC)– Begins from plants. Takes place in major aquatic ecosystems. Less fraction 41. Limitations of Ecological pyramids :
of energy flow. eg., Grass →Goat→Lion→Hawk  Ecological pyramid does not accommodate food web
32. Detritus food chain (DFC) – Energy transfer begins from detritus. It include Saprophytes which take  Do not take into account same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
food from detritus. Takes place in major terrestrial ecosystem. Large fraction of energy flow takes  Assumes simple food chain, which never exist iin nature,
place.
 Saprophytes are not included.

33. Food web :- Interconnected food chain

34. Trophic levels :- Based on the source of food, organisms occupy a specifi
specificc place in the food chain (First
trophic level – Producer, Second trophic level – Herbivores/ primary consumers, Third trophic level –
Carnivores / secondary consumers, Fourth trophic level – Teritiary consumers)
35. Standing crop :- Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time. (Measured
as the biomass/ number in a unit area.
36. Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate. Why? Fresh weight may vary
according to seasonal moisture variations , but dry weight remain unaffected by such variations.
37. Ecological pyramids :- Representation of food chain in the form of pyramid
38. Pyramid of number :–Representation
Representation of number of organisms in different trophic levels. (Grassland
ecosystem - Upright , Tree ecosystem - inverted)

39. Pyramid of biomass :– Representation of biomass of organisms at successive trophic levels ( Aquatic
ecosystem – inverted, All others Upright)

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