530 Bio-Based Building Materials

1 Introduction
The construction sector accounts for 36% of global energy use and 39% of energy and process-related
carbon dioxide emissions (UN Environment and International Energy Agency, 2018). The high
impact of the building sector has led to a growing interest in alternative building materials, such as
earth (mud). Buildings made with earth are considered economical and ecological compared to houses
built with concrete and fired bricks. As a building material, earth offers several advantages such as
the improvement of the indoor air quality and thermal comfort, reduced operational and embodied
energy use and have potential for reuse with the same embodied energy (Fabbri and Morel, 2016;
Minke, 2006). However, concerns related to the mechanical and durability related performance of
earthen structures are the key reason for its negative perception, especially in developing countries,
therefore limiting its widespread use (Kulshreshtha et al., 2020).
While the strength of earthen material is sufficient for the construction of low-rise structures, its
failure is often a result of low durability (Beckett et al., 2020). The durability of earthen structures is
affected by environmental actions such as water ingress, or erosion due to wind, fire, solar radiation,
growth of microorganisms and burrowing from animals (Fabbri et al., 2018; Laborel-Préneron et al.,
2016). Amongst these actions, erosion due to water ingress has the highest impact on the performance
of an earthen structure during its service life (Fabbri et al., 2018).
The technical limitations of earthen materials are often solved by the use of stabilisers or binders. The
most common stabilisers used in contemporary earthen construction are Portland cement and
hydraulic lime (often referred to as ‘chemical stabilisers’). The use of chemical stabilisers is subject
to widespread debate as they increase the embodied energy and reduce moisture buffering capacity
(capacity to regulate the indoor temperature and moisture) of earthen structures (Arrigoni et al., 2017;
Treloar et al., 2001; Venkatarama Reddy and Prasanna Kumar, 2010). Moreover, they increase the
cost and impact the reusability of earthen structures (Gallipoli et al., 2017). This debate has led to a
growing interest in research in alternative and eco-friendly stabilisers (Fabbri and Morel, 2016;
Şengör, 2019). In this regard, research into biological or organic stabilisers is on the rise mainly due
to their perceived environmental performance, local availability, renewability of source,
biodegradability (affecting re-use) and proven effectiveness in traditional earthen construction
(Şengör, 2019; Vissac et al., 2017).
Although a few review studies have covered these stabilisers for their strengthening effect on soil
(Chang et al., 2020; Jang, 2020), discussion regarding the durability aspects such as water-resistance
is limited. Therefore, the present review aggregates studies from the field of earthen construction and
geotechnical engineering and extends it to understand the response of biologically stabilised earthen
materials to water-ingress. This study reviews a wide range of traditional and industrial biological
stabilisers derived from animals (cow-dung, casein, chitosan), plants (starch, guar gum, cactus
mucilage, lignin, tannin), seaweeds (alginate, agar, carrageen) and microbes (xanthan gum, gellan
gum) with respect to their response to water ingress.
In the subsequent sections, the factors affecting water ingress in unstabilised earthen material and its
disintegration are summarised and hence used in understanding the response of water ingress in
biologically stabilised earthen material. Due to lack of fundamental studies on the water-resistance of
earthen building materials, information was drawn from the field of unsaturated soil mechanics, in
particular, studies on wetting-induced deformation relevant for landfill and embankment design. A
maximum of two studies on each biological stabiliser is selected for this investigation. Biological
stabilisers used in combination with other stabilisers are excluded.

2 Water Ingress in Unstabilised Earthen Materials

Water ingress in earthen materials can occur due to wind-driven rainfall, condensation, infiltration,
absorption from the surrounding ground etc. (Beckett et al., 2020). In extreme cases (often
experienced in the delta regions and river basins of developing countries), flooding can also lead to
failure of earthen structures. Water ingress through immersion is used in this study to develop a
 Construction Technologies and Architecture Vol. 1 531

conceptual model. This route is preferred because it is a commonly used laboratory test method and
could be useful to assess stabiliser efficacy (Beckett et al., 2020).
The water-resistance of construction materials is often perceived as linked with strength properties.
While these properties are inter-related, the factors affecting are not necessarily the same. The
strength of unstabilised earthen material (such as rammed earth) is demonstrated to be dependent on
the capillary suction between soil aggregates and is directly related to the dry density and the moisture
content (relative humidity) in the sample (Bui et al., 2014; Jaquin et al., 2009). The capillary suction
and strength increases with increasing dry density and decreasing moisture content.
The disintegration of earthen material, such as earthen blocks, upon water ingress, can be attributed
to reduction in capillary suction that holds the aggregates together (Tadepalli and Fredlund, 1991).
The rate of reduction in capillary suction is related to the ability of water to flow in the earthen
material. The flow rate depends on the permeability or hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the
hydraulic gradient. Permeability is linked to microstructural fabric (arrangement of particles and
resulting pore size distribution and connectivity) and is influenced by the material’s largest pores
(Leroueil and Hight, 2013). Compacted earthen material displays two types of pore space: inter-
aggregate pores or macro-pores between solid aggregates and intra-aggregate pores or micro-pores
between the individual particles within the aggregates (Romero, 2013). The macro-pores are known
to be mainly responsible for water permeability (Romero, 2013). Therefore, reduction in macro-pore
size can reduce the susceptibility of earthen material to water ingress. In parallel to the physical
characteristics of microstructural fabric, the resistance to moisture ingress also depends on the soil’s
vulnerability to the physico-chemical interaction between water molecules and soil surface
(particularly in clays). The physico-chemical process includes the forces and energy responsible for
adsorption and desorption of water molecules, thereby affecting the moisture retention and moisture
transport in the earthen material. Therefore, the amount and activity of the clay minerals in the
material have a significant influence on the water-resistance. The various factors affecting the
microstructural fabric and hydraulic conductivity are illustrated and summarised in Fig.1. These
factors are drawn from multiple studies (Choudhury and Bharat, 2018; Delage et al., 1996; Lawton
et al., 1989; Leroueil and Hight, 2013; Lim and Miller, 2004; Watabe et al., 2000; Yesiller and
Shackelford, 2011).
Apart from amount and type of clays, the compaction force and especially compaction water content
(amount of water in soil during compaction) have a significant effect on the microstructural fabric
and hydraulic conductivity. With an increase in compaction water content, especially beyond
optimum moisture content (OMC), the water-resistance of earthen material was also found to
increase. In an experimental study carried out by the first author (unpublished), the unstabilised
samples prepared at higher water content could sustain immersion and drip erosion significantly better
than samples prepared at water content lower than OMC (both samples were of same dry density).
532 Bio-Based Building Materials

Fig. 1: Factors affecting the microstructure fabric and hydraulic conductivity of unstabilised
earthen block. OMC refers to an optimum moisture content which corresponds to a maximum dry
density

3 Response of Biological Stabilised Earthen Material to Water Ingress

The addition of biological stabilisers in earthen materials results in the modification of the
microstructural fabric and physico-chemical interactions of the soil with water. The physical process
of reducing macro-pore size through pore-filling is often proposed as a mechanism for the gain in
strength and increase in water-resistance of biologically stabilised material (illustrated in fig. 2.).
Biological stabilisers can swell when they interact with water, which can further reduce the pore size,
however, they also begin to lose their stiffness, which results in weakening, allowing the soil to swell
thereby giving further access to water. While the physical processes influence the hydraulic properties
of the material, the physico-chemical interaction could be a dominant factor in improving the water-
resistance of biologically stabilised earthen material. In this regard, the amount of clay particles,
mineralogy and thereby activity can have a strong influence on the overall stability of material
immersed in water. The ions and minerals present in water also play an essential role in the physico-
chemical interaction. When a biological stabiliser is added to clayey soil, it can interact with soil
aggregates, as shown in Fig. 2.
 Construction Technologies and Architecture Vol. 1 533

Fig. 2: Pore filling (left) and interaction various adsorption sites of biological stabiliser with
aggregates (right)
The stabiliser content, the amount of water it is dissolved in, the clay content and clay mineralogy
affect the extent of interaction between the different particles and resulting strength and water-ingress.
Upon water-ingress in stabilised non-cohesive soils (sand), the interfacial properties of sand-stabiliser
and the properties of the stabilisers would be responsible for resisting the moisture ingress.
Disintegration could happen if and when the stabiliser starts solubilising with percolating water,
reducing its capacity to hold the aggregates together. De-bonding of the stabiliser from the surface of
sand could also be responsible for its dis-integration. In the case of compacted clayey soil, the
inclusion of clay makes the system more complex. The clay particles, based on their amount and
activity, can interact and form composites with the stabiliser. Clay particles have a negative charge
on their surface, while edge charge depends on the pH or surrounding media. Due to availability of
interaction sites, it can bond with the stabiliser through ionic interactions, hydrogen bonding, cation
exchange or any other bonding mechanism. When the affinity between clay and stabiliser is low, the
clay particles are known to be in a phase-separated state, where they are separated by the matrix of
the stabiliser (Babu Valapa et al., 2017). This affinity depends on the clay mineral, and often with
kaolinite mineral (most commonly used clay minerals in earthen construction), the affinity is low
unless functional groups facilitating interaction are present in the stabiliser (Babu Valapa et al., 2017).
When an earthen block is immersed in water, water moves through the macro-pores and interacts
with the surrounding material of the pores. The biological stabiliser can affect the surface
characteristics, like surface charge, hydrophobicity and cation exchange capacity, and consequently
affect the physical-chemical interactions between liquid and solid phase. However, when the ions
present in water start forming bonds with stabilisers, they can cause swelling and softening of
stabiliser, and provide a route for water to interact with the clays. The swelling of clay can create
micro-cracks in the matrix facilitating further movement of water. The softening or loss of stiffness
of the matrix, coupled with reduced capillary suction due to the presence of water, results in separation
of aggregates. Therefore, the interaction between the clay particles and the properties of stabilisers
(which can be modified through heat and chemical treatment) plays a significant role in aggregate
stability and water-resistance.
The interaction mechanisms reported in the literature for each stabiliser, including treatments for
improved resistance, are explained briefly below. Most of these mechanisms are proposed for
strengthening but could equally contribute towards water-resistance.
3.1 Stabilisers derived from animals
Cow-dung is a commonly used traditional stabiliser that improves the water-resistance of earthen
materials; however, there is a lack of reserach focusing on the interaction mechanisms explaining its
behaviour. Although formation of an insoluble compound formed by the reaction of amine
compounds in cow-dung with fine quartz in soil under alkaline condition (pH 12) is proposed
(Millogo et al., 2016), the unusual high alkaline condition of cow-dung is not common in nature. The