COASTS

Objectives:

 Demonstrate an understanding of the work of the sea and wind in eroding,

transporting and depositing.
 Describe and explain the formation of landforms associated with these processes.
 Describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps.
 Describe the conditions required for coral reefs and mangrove formation.
 Demonstrate an understanding of hazards and opportunities for people who live in
coastal areas.
 Explain the ways of dealing with coastal erosion.
 Case study on the opportunities presented by an area of coastline, the associated
hazards and their management.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

a) Coast
 A zone where the land meets the sea.
b) Coastline
 The outline of the edge of the land on a map.
c) Shore
 The area between the lowest tide level and the highest tide level.
d) Beach
 Deposits of sand, pebbles or shingle.
e) Swash
 It is the movement of water up the beach. It is a depositional process.
f) Backwash
 It is the movement of water down the beach. It is an erosional process.
g) Waves
 It is an undulating sea surface water movement.

Crest Crest

Wave length

Wave

height

wave trough

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 i. Crest – It is an uphill that is formed when water rises.
ii. Wave trough – It is a depression that is formed when water falls.
iii. Wave length – It is the distance between two successive wave crests.
iv. Wave height – it is the distance between the top of the wave crest and the adjacent
wave trough

TYPES OF WAVES

 There are 2 main types of waves which are:

a. Constructive waves
b. Destructive waves

1. Constructive waves/ Spilling waves

 These are waves that have a very strong swash and a weak backwash
 They are called constructive waves because the build up the beach by depositing
sand and pebbles on it.
 Its wave height is low.
 It has a long wave length.
 Constructive waves have low frequency of 6-8 waves per minute.
 It has a gentle wave front.
 The breaking wave spills forward

2. Destructive waves/ Plunging waves

 These are waves that have a weak swash and a strong backwash.
 They are called destructive waves because they destroy the beach by pulling
down materials from it.
 It has a high wave height.
 It has a short wave length.
 Destructive waves have high frequency of 10-15 waves per minute.
 It has a steep wave front.
 The breaking wave plunges backwards.

COASTAL PROCESSES

 Coastal processes are the same as river erosion processes. These are:
a. Erosion
b. Transportation
c. Deposition

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COASTAL EROSION

 Coastal erosional processes are the same as river erosional processes.

 These are:

(a) Hydraulic Action

 This is when waves trap and compress air in the cracks on the cliffs which causes
the cliff to collapse.

(b) Corrasion/ Abrasion

 Particles carried by the waves are thrown at the cliff causing it to wear away
quickly.

(c) Attrition
 Particles carried by the waves crash against each other and are broken up.

(d) Solution/ Corrosion

 Acids in the sea water dissolve chalk and limestone cliffs.

LANDFORMS FORMED BY COASTAL EROSION

These include:

 Cliffs
 Wave-cut platforms
 Bays
 Headland coast lines
 Caves
 Arches
 stacks
 stumps

1. Cliff and wave cut platforms

 It is a vertical steeply sloping rocks found at the margin of land and sea.
 It results from waves that erode the foot of the cliff.
 Continued erosion through processes such as hydraulic action and corrasion creates
a wave cut notch at the base of the cliff.
 The wave cut notch widens and leaves an unsupported rock above the wave cut
notch.
 The unsupported rock above sea level is also affected by mechanical and chemical
weathering processes.
 This makes the cliff unstable and it collapses.

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  The collapsed material is washed away and a new wave cut notch starts to form.
 Repeated erosion and collapsing results in the cliff retreating.
 As the cliff retreats it leaves behind a gently sloping platform of rock called a wave
cut platform.

2. Headlands and bays

 Headlands and bays are formed where there are alternating layers of hard and soft
rocks the coast.
 This causes the coastal rocks to be eroded at different rates.
 The softer rocks are eroded back more quickly to form bays.
 The harder rocks resist erosion forming headlands which protrude out into the sea
between bays.

3. Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps

 Faults or cracks develop on the resistant rock/ headland.
 Waves hit against the headland and enlarge the cracks mainly through hydraulic
action and abrasion causing a cave to be formed on either side of the headland.
 Continued erosion deepens the caves until they completely cut through the
headland and meet to form an arch.
 The arch is eroded and the roof becomes too heavy and collapses.
 This leaves a stack which am isolated rock that is separate from the headland.
 The stack continues to be eroded and collapses to form a stump.

COASTAL TRANSPORTATION

 Material is usually transported along coasts by a process called longshore drift.

Longshore drift

 The onshore prevailing winds drive the waves to the coast at an oblique angle.
 The swash carries the materials up the beach at an oblique angle.
 The backwash carries the materials straight down the beach at a right angle.
 The materials move along the coast in a zig zag manner.

 There are four other processes of coastal transportation:

a) Traction – Large particles are rolled along the sea bed.
b) Saltation – Small pebbles are bounced along the sea bed.
c) Suspension – Fine materials are carried floating in water.
d) Solution – Dissolved materials are carried in the sea.

COASTAL DEPOSITION

 Deposition is when material being carried by sea water is dropped on the coast.

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LANDFORMS FORMED BY COASTAL DEPOSITION

1. Beaches
 These are sand and shingle deposits between the low and high water marks.
 Beaches can be straight, crescent shaped, triangular or semi-circular.
 They are formed by constructive waves depositing material like sand and shingle.
 Sand beaches are gently sloping and are usually wide.
 Shingle forms steeply sloping beaches which are narrow.

2. Spits
 These are long, narrow, low ridges of sand or shingle deposited at bends in the coast.
 The onshore prevailing winds drive the waves to the coast at an oblique angle.
 The swash carries the materials up the beach at an oblique angle.
 The backwash carries the materials straight down the beach at a right angle.
 The deposits build up and grow from a headland across a bay or river mouth.
 This forms a spit which is a landform with one end attached to the land and the
other ends in water.
 The spit may be recurved at the end due to winds coming from the opposite
direction to that of the prevailing winds.

3. Bars
 The onshore prevailing winds drive the waves to the coast at an oblique angle.
 The swash carries the materials up the beach at an oblique angle.
 The backwash carries the materials straight down the beach at a right angle.
 The deposits build up and grow from a headland right across a bay or river mouth.
 They enclose lagoons behind them.

4. Coastal sand dunes

 These are ridges of sand that form at the back of beaches and spits by wind
deposition.
 They are formed when strong on shore prevailing winds pick up sand from the
beach.
 If an obstacle is encountered, the wind loses energy and deposits sand around the
obstacle.
 Vegetation will grow on the deposited materials and the vegetation trap more sand
allowing the ridge to grow tall and wide
 The sand dune is colonized by vegetation.

5. Salt marshes and mangrove swamps

 Salt marshes are areas of low growing, salt tolerant vegetation on mud flats.
 Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal areas.

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  The water in the lagoon is sheltered and calm.
 Mud is brought in the lagoon and accumulates to form mud flats.
 Plants starts to grow on mud flats.
 These plants trap more mud and hold it firmly so the surface level rises.
 Vegetation increases and the mud flat becomes a salt marsh or mangrove swamp.

Conditions required for the growth of mangrove swamps

 Mangrove swamps require low wave action so that the deposited mud cannot be
easily eroded hence allowing the roots to be firm in the soil.
 Mangroves need adequate sunlight for the process of photosynthesis.
 They grow where there is shallow water so that the mud quickly fills up the lagoon
for the plants to grow.
 They require suitable levels of salinity.
 The area should be free from frost.
 There is need for moderate water temperatures.
 The mangroves require suitable soils.

Benefits of mangrove swamps

 They are important wildlife habitats.

 Their roots stabilise the coast against erosion.
 They grow up to 15m so they offer protection against hurricanes and strong winds.
 They protect the coast from flooding.
 They are a source of food e.g. fruits.
 They also provide nursery for fish.
 They are also important for recreational facilities like fishing.

CORAL REEFS

 Corals are tiny marine animals called polyps.

 They form reefs when millions live together in colonies.
 Their skeletons are calcareous cups which are joined with others to form a hard,
stony mass.
 As one generation dies, the next one grows on top of it, so the reef grows upwards
and outwards as the corals compete for food.
 Coral reefs run parallel to the coast.
 They have breaks in them, usually at the mouths of rivers.

Conditions required for the development of coral reefs

 They grow best where the surface water temperature is 20-25oC. So they are
normally found within 30o of the Equator.

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  They develop where the oxygen supplies are most abundant.
 They need plentiful supply of plankton.
 There should be low current/ low wave action.
 Polyps need clean, clear, sunlit water so cannot live where rivers deposit sediments
into the sea.
 Corals grow best in conditions of high salinity.
 They need shallow water to about 10 metres.
 There has to be a solid surface from which the reef growth starts.

Types of coral reefs

 Fringing reef
 Barrier reef
 Coral atoll

Benefits of coral reefs

 They attract tourists.

 Important for mining of petroleum.

Threats to coral reefs by man

 Sailors may use them as anchorage thus destroying them.

 Tourists may trample upon coral reefs.
 Climate change may cause loss of colour by coral reefs (bleaching).
 Pollution also damages the coral reefs since they weaken them.

COASTAL OPPORTUNITIES

1. Tourism – there are some tourist resorts on the coast e.g. hotels and tourists enjoy
activities such as sunbathing on the beach, swimming.
2. Sports – many sporting activities use the coast e.g. sailing, surfing, diving etc.
3. Fishing – many people make their living from catching and selling fish on the coast.
4. Oil and gas reserves are found under oceans near coasts.
5. Housing – many people live along coasts because of its beauty and relaxing life style.
6. Industry – many industries locate near coasts for easy transport and easy of trade.
7. Transport –many ports are found in coastal areas and help trading and travelling
between countries.

COASTAL HAZARDS

1. Erosion – many coastlines are being eroded by stronger storms and rising sea levels.
2. Tropical storms – there is frequency of storms with high magnitude which increase
possibility of floods.

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 3. Overfishing – many fish stocks around the world are being over fished to dangerous
levels.
4. Pollution of the sea comes from sewage discharge, oil spills, and litter thrown into
the sea can harm aquatic life.
5. Rising of sea level is also a coastal hazard caused by global warming, so low lying
areas become vulnerable to flooding.

COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Hard Engineering

 Hard engineering strategies are man-made structures built to control the flow of the
sea and reduce flooding and erosion.

Method and Description Advantages Disadvantages

Rip-rap – this is when giant - It is effective. - It looks bad.

boulders are paced at the - It reduces beach
foot of the cliff to reduce access.
wave energy. - It is expensive.

Gabions – it is when small - It can be installed - It looks bad.

stones are put in a metal quickly. - It is expensive.
cage and placed at the foot - It is fairly effective. - It reduces beach
of the cliff to deflect wave access
energy.

Groynes – it is a wall built - It is effective. - It needs regular

out into the sea to protect replacement.
the beach from being - It looks bad.
eroded. - They reduce
depositing of sand on
the beach.

Sea walls – it is a wall built - It is very effective. - It is very expensive.

out of concrete and aims to - It looks bad.
absorb wave energy against
the cliffs and beaches

Revetments – they are - It is effective. - They need regular

similar to sea wall, but are replacement.
often made out of wood. - They don’t protect
against storms.

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Soft Engineering

 Soft engineering strategies are schemes set up using knowledge of the sea and its
processes to reduce the effects of flooding and erosion.
1. Beach nourishment
 This is adding more sand to the beach creating a better natural defence.

2. Dune stabilisation
 Refers to the planting of vegetation on sand dunes to increase their stability by
reducing moisture content and to hold the sand firmly.

3. Cliff regrading
 This is to make the cliff less steep thereby reducing the risk of cliff collapsing.

4. Beach drainage
 This refers to removing some of the excess water from the beach thereby making it
stable.

CASE STUDY: COASTAL HAZARDS AND MANAGEMENT

Name of area: Pacifica

 Pacifica is a settlement on the coast to the South of San Francisco in the United
States of America. It is situated on top of a sandstone cliff 27 metres above the
Pacific Ocean.

Hazards

 In the winter of 2009, waves approached from the south west driven by south
westerly prevailing winds. This resulted to the undercutting of the cliff below
Pacifica. Continued undercutting of the cliff caused the cliff to retreat. In January
2010, two apartments in a block on the edge of the cliff were evacuated due to cliff
falls.
 By the end of April 2010, people living in the last four apartments had been forced to
abandon their homes because a 3-metre section of the cliff had been weakened by
erosion making the building unsafe.
 The storms further weakened the cliff below the Pacifica. By the end of December
2010, even more of the cliff had fallen during storms since the cliff had been eroded
back by almost 7 metres during the year. This resulted to a third of the apartment
building hanging over the ocean, making it very dangerous for human habitation.

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MANAGEMENT

 Some attempts had been already made to slow down cliff erosion. This was in the
form of riprap method whereby large boulders had been placed at the base of the
cliff to break the energy of the waves from eroding the cliff.
 Engineers also tried to strengthen the cliffs by reinforcing and surfacing it so that it
withstands wave energy.
 The owner of the apartments further down the road built a very large sea wall to
deflect the incoming waves and preventing the cliff from continuing to erode
backwards.
 They also proposed to put gabions at the base of the cliff. These are metal baskets
filled with stones and placed at the base of the cliff to reduce wave attack on the
cliff.

OPPORTUNITIES

Name of place: Grand Cayman

 The Grand Cayman has its largest area in the centre of an island. This is a very low
lying island with mangroves.
 Tourists started to visit the Grand Cayman in the 1960s. They are attracted by
activities such as golf courses, tennis courts, sun basking etc.
 Between 1997 and 2009 there were a lot of developments on the island such as
building of new hotels where many tourists could be accommodated.
 By 2010, 66% of the mangroves that existed on the western peninsula had been
removed to make way for the development of the Dragon Bay which stretches from
Seven Miles Beach to the north. Some of the properties in the Dagon Bay include the
development of private beaches which also attract tourists allowing the country to
get more revenue.

Questions

1. Give reasons why coral reefs do not grow in deep oceans, polar areas and river mouths. [3] [2217/22/M/J/
18].

2. Coral reefs are a hazard to shipping. Suggest why the owner of a boat, offering day trips to tourists, would be
in favour of preserving the coral reefs. [2] [2217/22/M/J/18].

3. Describe the main features of a mangrove swamp. [3] [2217/12/O/N/17].

4. Coral reefs are located along many coastlines. Describe four conditions which are needed for the development
of a coral reefs. [4] [2217/12/O/N/17].

5. Suggest reasons why coastal cliffs sometimes erode rapidly. [3] [2217/12/O/N/17].

6. Name any 3 methods that can be used to stop coastal erosion. [3].

7. Explain why people live along a named area of coastline you have studied. [7] [2217/12/O/N/17].

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