Borrowing

- attempted reproduction in one language of patterns previously found in another

donor language
- the language from which the word was borrowed

recipient language
- the language that borrows the word from another language

Borrowing depends on bilingualism

Area effected
- lexicon (vocabulary) – most often borrowed from other languages
- phonology (sounds) – less often borrowed from other languages
- syntax (grammar) – least often borrowed from other languages
(similar words/sounds/grammar to the recipient language are more likely to be borrowed by it)

Status
- donor language is often the more prestigious language (due to its history, or the fact that it was
used by the high class) (Latin, French)
- recipient language is often the less prestigious one (English, Polish)

Cultural borrowing
- one group of speakers borrows an object or concept from another
- the name of the concept tends to stay the same
- is often linked with foreign fauna, flora, and technology
- is frequently bidirectional

Examples in English
Word Donor language
apartheid Afrikaans
perestroika Russian
pajamas Hindi
quay Gualish (extinct language) via French
garnet Middle Dutch
flannel Welsh
lama Tibetan
potato Taino (language of indigenous people) via Spanish
arrowroot Arawak
artichoke Arabic via Spanish
banana Wolof via Spanish

Motivations for borrowing

- sheer necessity (cultural borrowing)
- social (depends on perception of prestige)
- examples: leech (informal) – doctor (ordinary) (French) – physician (formal) (Latin)
ask – question (French) – interrogate (Latin)
 Types of borrowings
loanword calque semantic loan hybrid pseudo-anglicisms
(loan translation)
borrowing morphologically the meaning of the both borrowing forms composed of borrowed
of form and complex foreign native word is of form and morphemes, which are not
meaning expressions are extended to substitution used as such in English
translated by means of accommodate a with a native (words with a foreign
novel combinations of borrowed meaning element spelling/different usage)
native elements which (addition of another (foreign + native
match the meaning and meaning due to new word)
structure of foreign tech or use in other
expressions languages)
apartheid drapacz chmur strona New York singiel
(sky-scraper) = page of a book -> Nowy York
cuisine -> also web page happy end (instead of happy
nadwaga cyberprzestrzeń ending)
pasta (overweight) myszka
= animal -> also chips (chips = plural, in Polish
pizza pranie mózgu computer mouse chipsy)
(brainwashing)
espresso dieta leasing
sklep z drugiej ręki = food in general ->
café (second-hand shop) also diet as in the smoking (a type of suit)
specific style of eating
parking (instead of parking lot)

dres (baggy clothing)

kemping (instead of camping)

longplay

dansing/dancing

Adoption/Adaptation
Adoption (importation) – a word is borrowed along with forms foreign to the borrowing language
(recipient language borrows a word from the donor language without changing anything)

Adaptation – a word fits into the pattern of the borrowing language (often the form changes so that
it can be declined by cases)

The degree of adaptation depends on:

- structural differences between two languages (the more similar, the more likely to be adopted)
- quantity of loans from the same source in the borrowing language (the more, likely to be adopted)
- degree of bilingualism (the more bilingual is the country, the more likely to be adopted
- prestige associated with the lending language (more prestigious = adopted)
- social attitudes towards bilingualism, linguistic nationalism (nationalism = adapted)
Types of adaptation
I. Morphological adaptation
1. gender assignment
a) semantic (the meaning or foreign equivalent)
- dżokej (“male” sport)
- miss, lady, milady (formal way of addressing a girl/woman)
- party ( (to) przyjęcie, (to) spotkanie = neuter)
- whisky ( (ta) wódka = feminine)
b) phonological
- masculine: nouns ending with a consonant
(tenis, farmer, badminton, kombajn, kidnaping, komiks, serial, computer, mop)
- feminine: nouns ending with “a”
(sekwoja, ginea, stewardessa, farma, dżungla, runda)
- neuter: nouns ending with “o”, “i”, “u”, “y”
(disco, bikini, derby, party, rugby, waterpolo, dżiu-dżitsu)
c) morphological
- nouns with final “ist” in English = Polish “ista/ysta” = masculine
(eskapista, folklorysta (EN: escapist, folklorist)
2. plural formation
a) morphological substitution (“s” is changed with the plural suffix of the foreign language)
(shorts -> shorty, slips -> slipy, wellingtons -> wellingtony)
b) loss of English “-s” in pluralia tantum (words with only plural form, which are also the
singular)
(pyjamas -> piżama/pidżama)
c) depluralization (suffix “s/es/ies” loses its plural function)
(bambus/bambusy = EN: bamboo/bamboos,
fotos/fotosy = EN: commando/commandos
chips/chipsy = EN: chip/chips
drops/dropsy = EN: drop/drops
Eskimos/Eskimosi = EN: Eskimo/Eskimoes
Torys/Torysi = EN: Tory/Torries
blumers/blumersi = EN: blommer/blommers)
 3. verbs
a) fully assimilated = with infinitival suffix “-ować” and perfective forms
(parkować/zaparkować
czarterować/wyczarterować
trenować/wytrenować
budżetować/zabudżetować)
b) partially assimilated = with only the infinitical suffix “-ować”
(jazzować, besemerować)
c) unassimilated = verbs used only in imperative – trybie rozkazującym (play, pull, stop)
4. adjectives
a) assimilated = e.g. kompatybilny, relewantny
b) unassimilated = e.g. fair, blue, country, fit, happy, sophisticated
5. adverbs and exclamations – behave like Polish adverbs and exclamations (cannot be
declined)
adverbs e.g. fifty-fifty, non-stop
exclamations e.g. halo, good-bye
6. nouns
a) fully assimilated (have singular and plural form)
sekwoje, terminale, tunele, doki parking, slangi, dolary, swetry, toasty
b) partially assimilated (only singular form)
busz, catering, flanela, lycra, czartyzm, bum/boom
c) unassimilated (don’t decline)
country, disco, polo, igloo, party, show, soul

II. Phonological adaptation

a) substitution (sound is replaced)
EN: thriller -> PL: triler
b) phonotactics (different combination of sounds that is allowed by the language)
sexual harassement -> JP: sekuhara (CVCV = consonant, vowel, consonant, vowel)
c) final devocing (b -> p, d -> t, etc.)
EN: job -> G: job

III. Semantic adaptation

shift of meaning = dress (EN) -> dres (PL), novel (EN) -> nowela (PL)
narrowing of meaning = cake (EN) -> keks (PL)
extension of meaning = five o’clock (EN) -> fajwoklok (PL) (afternoon party, not necessarily at 5
o’clock)
Borrowings/Loans in English (The words in tables are divided by me to try to
somehow remember them better, you can change them if you want)
A lot of languages highly affected the shape of contemporary English. Loans in English stem mainly
from the following languages:

Latin, Scandinavian, and French

I. Latin
a) Latin (Christianization)
- the process of Christianization in England started in 604 and ended in the year 700. The
Christianization had important consequence for the development of culture and language.

Mainly words connected to faith (+school):

mass, bishop, pope, abbot (monk in monastery), altar, angel, apostle, heaven, holy, spirit, gospel,
verse, school

b) Latin (Renaissance)
Nouns Adjectives Verbs
1. enthusiasm 9. allusion 1. pernicious (synonym to 1. assassinate
2. expectation 10. accent harmful) 2. eradicate
3. excursion 11. phrase 2. insane 3. extinguish
4. elegy 12. fiction 4. harass
13. invisibility 3. expensive
5. dexterity 4. external 5. exist
6. disability 14. capsule 5. habitual
15. jurisprudence 6. mediate
7. denunciation (legal system) 6. jocular (funny)
8. drama 7. agile
8. democratic
9. imaginary

c) Latin (17th/18th century)

Health Chemistry/physics Psychology Space
1. carnivorous 9. clinic 1. nucleus 1. egocentric 1. space
2. calorie 10. anemia 2. formula 2. extravert 2. spacecraft
3. hormone 11. bronchitis 3. atom, atomic 3. introvert 3. module
4. metabolism 4. molecule 4. behaviorism 4. astronaut
12. aspirin 5. radium 5. inhibition 5. cosmonaut
5. enzyme 13. morphine
6. protein 14. penicillin 6. dynamo
7. electron
7. bacteriology 8. ionization
8. immunology 9. chain reaction
10. relativity
 II. Scandinavian (loans due to the Scandinavian invasion of Britain (8th-9th century))
Everyday life Place names (Scandinavian Personal Pronouns
meaning) names
1. bank 14. skill -by (farm, town): 1. Asa They/Them/Their
2. loan 15. skirt Derby, Rugby, Whitby, 2. Boduwar
3. law 16. sky Grimsby 3. Brunild

4. sea 17. meek -thorp(e) (village): 4. Eric

5. keel 18. weak Althorp, Bishopthorpe,
19. wrong Linthorpe 5. Guthrun
6. bull 6. Harald
7. steak 20. call -thwaite (isolated piece of 7. Hacun
8. egg 21. cast land): 8. Ingrede
9. root 22. get Braithwaite, Langthwaite
23. give 9. Orm
10. fellow 24. die -toft (house): 10. Sigwar
11. sister 25. take Brimtoft, Eastoft, Langtoft, 11. Swegen
26. want Nortoft 12. Tostig
12. band 13. Thirkil
13. window 14. Ulf

III. French
Huge influx of French vocabulary due to the Norman Conquest.
French was used by upper social classes and was used in English court and literature. English was
used by the lower classes. (This situation existed for a 100 years)

Church government/ fashion/cuisine medicine/art Expressions

army/law translated into
English
religion 1. government 1. dress 1. plague 1. plenty of
2. crown 2. robe 2. stomach 2. because of
3. baron 3. veil 3. pain 3. according to
4. duke 4. button 4. medicine 4. subject to
5. petition 5. fur 5. remedy
6. pulse 5. to take leave
6. army 6. homily 6. to hold one’s
7. navy 7. dinner 7. art place
8. peace 8. supper 8. painting 7. to do justice
9. battle 9. feast 9. poet 8. to make
10. sergeant 10. plate 10. title believe
11. taste 11. paper
11. crime 12. pen 9. in vain
12. justice 13. music 10. by heart
13. cardinal 14. tone 11. at large
14. treason 15. logic
15. bill 16. study
16. bail
17. palace
18. mansion
Semantic changes
(Chronological division of English: Old English: 450-1100, Middle English: 1100-1500)

1. Broadening = broadening of the meaning, the change of meaning from more specific to
more general

docga (Old English) = hunting dog -> dog (Present Day English)
(hund (OE) = dog)
bridd (OE) = little bird/birdie -> bird (PDE)
(fugol (OE) = bird)
hæligdæg (OE) = holy day -> holiday (PDE)
arrive (borrowing from French to OE) = come to the shore -> come to a place (PDE)

2. Narrowing = narrowing of meaning, the change of meaning from more general to more
specific

gyrle (Middle English) = young person of either sex, a child -> girl = female young person (PDE)
hund (OE) = dog -> hound = hunting dog (PDE)
dēor (OE) = wild animal/beast -> deer (PDE)
mete (OE) = food in general -> meat (PDE)

3. Amelioration = “improvement in meaning”, change of connotation from

negative/neutral to positive

cwēn (OE) = woman -> queen (PDE)

cniht (OE) = boy -> knight (PDE)
prættig (OE) = cunning/sly -> pretty = attractive person (PDE)
nice (ME) = silly/stupid -> nice (PDE)

4. Pejoration = “worsening of meaning”, change of connotation from positive/neutral to

negative

ceorl (OE) = farmer -> churl = rude/mean-spirited person (PDE)

mistress (ME) = woman (formal/respectable way of addressing) -> mistress = a woman with whom a
husband cheats on his wife (PDE)
sælig (OE) = happy/blessed/innocent -> silly (PDE)
wenche (ME) = girl -> wench = prostitute/a promiscuous woman (PDE)
cnafa (OE) = boy -> knave = dishonest man (PDE)
coutresane (ME) = woman from royal court -> courtesan = woman who has sexual relationships with
rich and powerful men for money (PDE)

5. Shift of meaning
siþþan (OE) = later -> since (PDE) tīd (OE) = time -> tide (PDE)
beforan (OE) = in front of -> before (PDE) tīm (OE) = an hour’s duration -> time (PDE)
Modal verbs (the origin = PPVs (preterite-present verbs)
PDE Old English PDE Old English
- cunnan can be intellectually able - mōtan must be allowed to
- durran dare have courage - āgan ought have
- magan may have physical ability - sculan should must
Will (anomalous verb) = willan (OE) = want, be willing to -> will (PDE)