MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY

AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN

IV YEAR I SEMESTER
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

L T/P/D C
IV Year B. Tech, ANE-I Sem
4 -/-/- 3
(R17A2120) AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Objectives:
 To know about detailed structural components present in aircraft
 To acquire the knowledge about the design parameters how why and where they will be used in
manufacturing
 Students can acquire the knowledge about the loading conditions done on the structure

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Principal structural components of aircraft. Design requirements- structural integrity, stiffness, service life.
Baseline aerodynamic configuration, external loading, weight, operating conditions, conformity to
government regulations. Design procedure- structural lay out, structural modeling, design criteria, load
estimation, stress analysis, choice of materials, sizing- estimation of strength, stiffness, mass .optimization,
trade-off. Structural index- use in design. Idealization of structures, materials- constitutive relations-
equilibrium, compatibility conditions significance. Sizing of structural elements of given geometry and loading
Analysis of box beams- single cell, multi cell- in bending, shear, torsion- normal stresses, shear flow,
deformation- restraint against warping, secondary stresses.

Unit II
FASTENERS AND STRUCTURAL JOINTS
Fasteners and fittings- role , significance, general design considerations, criteria for allowable strength.
Margine of safety. Fastener systems, types, fastener information, dimensions, materials, allowable strength-
tensile, shear, bending. Rivets, bolts and screws, nuts-detail design [Link] [Link]-
lugs, bushings and bearings-loading design and analysis. Joints – splices, eccentric, gusset, welded, brazed,
bonded- types, methods of joining, failure modes. Fatigue design considerations. Stress concentration- causes,
methods of reduction. Fastener load distribution and by pass load-severity factor, structural joint life
prediction. Shim control and requirement

UNIT III
DESIGN OF WINGAND TAIL STRUCTURES
The wing- role- summary of wing loads, structural components- wing box, leading and trailing edges. Wing
layout- location of spars, ailerons and flaps, rib spacing and direction, root rib bulkhead, span wise stiffeners,
wing covers- skin-stringer panels, integrally stiffened panels, access holes, attachment of leading edge and
trailing edge panels Spars- general rules of spar design. Ribs and bulkheads- rib spacing and arrangement
.Wing root joints, carry through structure. Fighter wing design- problems with swept wings Wing box- loads,
stress .Wing box,root bulkhead-estimation of loads, stress analysis, design parameters, optimization, sizing,
margin of safety.. Leading and trailing edge assembly- control surfaces, flaps- structure. Tail unit- horizontal,
vertical tail, elevator, rudder- configuration, structural layout, design considerations.

UNIT IV
DESIGN OF FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR
Function of fuselage- loading, general requirements. Ultimate strength of stiffened cylindrical structure.
Principal structural components –skin and stringers, frame and floor beam, pressure bulkheads, wing &
fuselage intersection- layout, stress analysis, sizing. Forward fuselage, aft, fuselage structures, fuselage
openings- windows, doors- design considerations. Landing gear- purpose, types, general arrangement, loads-
design considerations- ground handling, take-off, landing, braking, pavement loading, support structure.
stowage and retraction, gear lock- kinematic design Shock absorbers- function, types, components, operation,
loads, materials, design. Wheels and brakes, tire selection .

UNIT V
FATIGUE LIFE, DAMAGE TOLERANCE, FAIL SAFE- SAFE DESIGN-WEIGHT CONTROL AND BALANCE
Catastrophic effects of fatigue failure- examples- modes of failure- design criteria- fatigue stress, fatigue
performance, fatigue life. Fatigue design philosophy- fail-safe, safe life. Service behaviour of aircraft
structures- effect of physical and load environment design and of detail of fabrication Structural life- methods
of estimation- the scatter factor- significanceFail-safe design- the concept, requirements, damage tolerance-
estimation of fatigue strength

Text Books:
1. NIU.M.C. Airframe Structural Design, second edition, HongkongConmlit Press, 1988, ISBN: 962-
7128-09-0
2. NIU.M.C. Airframe Stress Analysis And Sizing, second edition, HongkongConmlit Press, 1987, ISBN:
962-7128-08-2

Out comes:
 Students will be acquainted with design criteria of aircraft component
 Students will be acquainted with manufacturing procedure from the design criteria
 Students will easily design their own components based on the design criteria they have learned
 UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft structural design, analysis, manufacturing and validation testing tasks have
become more complex, regardless of the materials used, as knowledge is gained in the
flight sciences, the variety of material forms and manufacturing processes is expanded,
and aircraft performance requirements are increased.

A greatly expanded design data base of applied loads is now available for more
complete and thorough definition of critical design conditions, thanks to the expanding
use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), advanced wind tunnel testing techniques,
and increasingly comprehensive aeroelastic and structural dynamic analysis computer
codes. Similarly, computer-aided design tools make it easier and quicker to consider a
much greater variety of alternative structural designs. The use of high-speed, large-
memory computers permits, in turn, more detailed internal structural loads analysis for
each of the many loading conditions and design alternatives, with fine grid analysis
determining more precise load paths, stress distributions, and load deflection
characteristics for subsequent aeroelastic analysis.

Expansion of structural synthesis, analysis, and testing capabilities and the widening
options available are making the choice of materials for both the airframe and the
engine one that is intrinsically woven into the structural concept, detailed part design,
and manufacturing process selection. A fundamental aspect, of course, is knowledge of
the physical properties of these materials. Characteristics such as static tensile strength,
compression and shear strength, stiffness, fatigue resistance, fracture toughness, and
resistance to corrosion or other environmental conditions, can all be important in the
design.

Each of these aspects must be considered and dealt with concurrently if modern
structural designs for aircraft are to approach optimum configurations and, thereby,
success in international
Introduction:
 The airframe is the basic structure of an aircraft and is designed to withstand all
aerodynamic forces, as well as the stresses imposed by the weight of the fuel, crew, and
payload
 Although similar in concept, aircraft can be broken down into fixed and rotary wing
structures
 The airplane is controllable around its lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes by deflection
of flight control surfaces
 These control devices are hinged or movable surfaces with which the pilot adjusts the
airplane's attitude during takeoff, flight maneuvering, and landing
 They are operated by the pilot through connecting linkage by means of rudder pedals and a
control stick or wheel

I. Principle Structure:

o Fuselage:
Main structural unit

 The fuselage is the principal structural unit of an aircraft

 The fuselage is designed to accommodate the crew, passengers, cargo, instruments, and
other essential equipment

 Types of Fuselage Construction:

o The construction of aircraft fuselages evolved from the early wood truss structural
arrangements to monocoque shell structures to the current semimonocoque shell
structures.

 Truss Structure:
 In this construction method, strength and rigidity are obtained by
joining tubing (steel or aluminum) to produce a series of
triangular shapes, called trusses
 Lengths of tubing, called longerons, are welded in place
to form a wellbraced framework
 Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to the
longerons and give the structure a square or rectangular
shape when viewed from the end
 Additional struts are needed to resist stress that can
come from any direction
 Stringers and bulkheads, or formers, are added to shape
the fuselage and support the covering
 As designs progressed these structures were enclosed, first with
cloth and eventually with metals
 These upgrades streamlined shape and increased performance
 In some cases, the outside skin can support all or a major portion
of the flight loads
 Aircraft Fuselage

o Most modern aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure known as
monocoque or semimonocoque construction
 Monocoque:
 Monocoque (French for "single shell") construction uses stressed
skin to support almost all loads much like an aluminum beverage
can
 In monocoque construction, rigs, formers, and bulkheads of
varying sizes give shape and strength to the stressed skin fuselage
[Figure 1]
 Although very strong, monocoque construction is not highly
tolerant to deformation of the surface
 For example, an aluminum beverage can supports considerable
forces at the ends of the can, but if the side of the can is
deformed slightly while supporting a load, it collapses easily
 Because most twisting and bending stresses are carried by the
external skin rather than by an open framework, the need for
internal bracing was eliminated or reduced, saving weight and
maximizing space
 One of the notable and innovative methods for using monocoque
construction was employed by Jack Northrop
 In 1918, he devised a new way to construct a monocoque fuselage
used for the Lockheed S-1 Racer
 The technique utilized two molded plywood half-shells that were
glued together around wooden hoops or stringers
 To construct the half shells, rather than gluing many strips of
plywood over a form, three large sets of spruce strips were
soaked with glue and laid in a semi-circular concrete mold that
looked like a bathtub
 Then, under a tightly clamped lid, a rubber balloon was inflated in
the cavity to press the plywood against the mold
 Twenty-four hours later, the smooth half-shell was ready to be
joined to another to create the fuselage
 The two halves were each less than a quarter inch thick
  Although employed in the early aviation period, monocoque
construction would not reemerge for several decades due to the
complexities involved
 Every day examples of monocoque construction can be found in
automobile manufacturing where the unibody is considered
standard in manufacturing

 Semimonocoque:

 Semimonocoque construction, partial or one-half, uses a

substructure to which the airplane’s skin is attached. The
substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of
various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking
some of the bending stress from the fuselage. The main section of
the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and a firewall.
On single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually attached to the
front of the fuselage. There is a fireproof partition between the
rear of the engine and the flight deck or cabin to protect the pilot
and passengers from accidental engine fires. This partition is
called a firewall and is usually made of heat-resistant material
such as stainless steel. However, a new emerging process of
construction is the integration of composites or aircraft made
entirely of composites [Figure 2]

Pilot Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Monoplane (left) and Biplane

(right)

o Wings: Airfoils to produce lift

 Wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces
that support the airplane in flight
 Wings may be attached at the top ("high-wing"), middle ("mid-wing"), or lower ("low-
wing") portion of the fuselage
 The number of wings can also vary
o Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those
with two sets are called biplanes [Figure 4]
Figure 4: Wing Bracing Figure 5:

Figure:Wing Construction

 Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts that transmit the flight
and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure [ Figure 5]
 Since the wing struts are usually attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this
type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever
 A few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to
carry the loads without external struts
 The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers [ Figure 6]
 These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin
 The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil)
 In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks are either an integral part of the wing’s
structure or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing
 Attached to the rear, or trailing edges, of the wings are two types of control surfaces
referred to as ailerons and flaps
 Alternate Types of Wings:
o Design variations provide information on the effect controls have on lifting
surfaces from traditional wings to wings that use both flexing (due to billowing)
and shifting (through the change of the aircraft’s CG). For example, the wing of
the weight-shift control aircraft is highly swept in an effort to reduce drag and
allow for the shifting of weight to provide controlled flight. [Figure 3-9]
Handbooks specific to most categories of aircraft are available for the interested
pilot and can be found on the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website at
[Link]
 Ailerons:
o Ailerons (French for "little wing") are control surfaces on each wing which
control the aircraft about its longitudinal axis allowing the aircraft to "roll" or
"bank"
 This action results in the airplane turning in the direction of the
roll/bank
 With aileron deflection, there is asymmetrical lift (rolling moment) about
the longitudinal axis and drag (adverse yaw)
o They are located on the trailing (rear) edge of each wing near the outer tips
  They extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the
tip, and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that
cause the airplane to roll
o The yoke manipulates the airfoil through a system of cables and pulleys and act
in an opposing manor
 Yoke "turns" left: left aileron rises, decreasing camber and angle of
attack on the right wing which creates downward lift
 At the same time, the right aileron lowers, increasing camber
and angle of attack which increases upward lift and causes the
aircraft to turn left
 Yoke "turns" right: right aileron rises decreasing camber and angle of
attack on the right wing which creates downward lift
 At the same time, the left aileron lowers, increasing camber and
angle of attack on the left wing which creates upward lift and
causes the aircraft to turn right
o Although uncommon, some ailerons are configured with trim tabs which relieve
pressure on the yoke on the aileron for rolling

 Wing Planform:
o The shape and design of a wing is dependent upon the type of operation for
which an aircraft is intended and is tailored to specific types of flying: [ Figure
7]
 Rectangular:
 Rectangular wings are best for training aircraft, as well as low
speed aircraft
 Designed with twist to stall at the wing root first, to provide
aileron control in stalls
 Elliptical:
 Elliptical wings are most efficient, but difficult to produce
(spitfire)
 Tapered:
 More efficient than a rectangle wing but easier to produce than
an elliptical design
 Swept:
 Usually associated with swept-back, but can also be swept-
foreword
 Sweptback wings are best for high speed aircraft for delaying
Mach tendencies
 Stall at the tips first, providing poor stall characteristics
 Delta:
 Advantages of a swept wing, with good structural efficiency and
low frontal area
 Disadvantages are the low wing loading and high wetted area
needed to obtain aerodynamic stability

o which provides information on the effect controls have on lifting surfaces from
traditional wings to wings that use both flexing (due to billowing) and shifting
(through the change of the aircraft’s CG). For example, the wing of the weight-
shift control aircraft is highly swept in an effort to reduce drag and allow for the
shifting of weight to provide controlled flight. [Figure 3-9] Handbooks specific to
most categories of aircraft are available for the interested pilot and can be
found on the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website at [Link]
 Airplane Flying Handbook, Airfoil types

o Empennage (Vertical Tail and Horizontal Tail)

Loads can be divided into 4 groups as shown below.

Structural Design Criteria

Structural design criteria embodied within FAR 25 require the consideration of several key
characteristics of the structure:

 Gross weight requirements - loadability

 Performance capabilities
 Stiffness
 Aerodynamics characteristics
 Landing gear features and characteristics
 Operational altitudes
 Loads analysis requirements
The final basic loads must be an acceptable compromise of many considerations summarized in
the load organization interface chart shown below. The overall design is a continual tug-of-war
and compromise between many design groups within a typical aerospace (all trying to meet
different requirements).

Structural Design Criteria embody the following the following elements:

 Structural Stiffness Requirements

Provide adequate strength to prevent/control

 Flutter
 Control surface reversal - whereby the control surface has lost its effectiveness due to
weak torsional stiffness of the wing box
 Static divergence - whereby the wing structure becomes torsionally unstable as the
angle of attack increases due to the applied loads
 Aerodynamic Characteristics
Information to be determined by analysis and/or wind tunnel tests

 Basic aircraft stability characteristics

 Pressure distributions over the wing, empennage and fuselage
 Control surface hinge moments
 Pressure distributions of high lift devices, such as flaps and slats
 Load Analysis
Design loads determined for the various structural components using computer analysis.
Required analyses include

 Maneuver loads analysis

 Gust loads analysis (static and dynamic approaches)
 Landing loads analysis (including both rigid airframe and dynamic analyses)
 Ground handling loads (including both rigid and elastic aircraft characteristics)
 Control surface reversal characteristics and load distributions
  Dynamic analyses for control surface oscillatory conditions due to autopilot or yaw
damper failure
 Flutter analysis and tests including both wind tunnel and flight testing to verify
adequacy of damping characteristics of the aircraft throughout the speed range

This long list of load analyses requirements brings up one extremely important observation. There
are many, many load cases that the structural designer must consider and design for. A typical
aircraft structure will be analyzed for tens, perhaps hundreds, of loading situations!

Weight and Balance

Structural design loads affect the weight of the structure, and the weight of the aircraft influences
the magnitude of design loads. This interdependence suggests that a judicious selection of the
preliminary design weight is mandatory to the economical design of an aircraft (or rocket)
structure.

 Weight Requirements
 Center of gravity (c.g.) limits
 Weight distribution of fixed items such as engines, fuel tanks, etc. to allow
maximum use of aircraft cargo and passenger compartments
 Fuel requirements - affects c.g. requirements and gross weight capabilities
 Major Aircraft Weight
Aircraft gross weight and detailed distribution of weight both have a large
influence on structural design loads.

 Take-off gross weight. Considered for taxing and flight conditions.

 Design landing weight. Critical for both wing and fuselage down-bending
during landing.
 Zero fuel weight. This condition is usually critical for wing up-bending.

 Center of Gravity Envelope

A center of gravity envelope must be defined early in the aircraft design to
mediate significant changes in stability and control characteristics of the
aircraft.

 Weight Distribution
Careful distribution of dead weight (fuselage, wings, cargo, etc.) is essential.
Whether these large masses are placed about the centerbody or placed at
extreme forward or aft locations will influence greatly the magnitude of
down-bending experienced by the fuselage forebody or aftbody during a
hard landing.
 Down-bending means that the fuselage forebody and aftbody will bend
downwards relative to the center [Link] a similar way, the placement of
fuel will greatly affect wing up-bending (or down-bending). Careful
placement of fuel can provide bending relief during flight. Fuel usage during
flight:

Fuel weight provides relief to wing loading.

Inboard fuel expended. Airload reduced because

of reduce gross weight. Outboard fuel providing
wing bending relief.

Outboard fuel nearly expended. Bending relief

decaying faster tanairload bending; therefore, net
bending increasing slightly.

Flight Loads

Many different types of flight loads have to be considered.

  Maneuver Loads (symmetrical and unsymmetrical)
 Gust Loads (symmetrical and unsymmetrical)
Aircraft in balanced flight

With deflected elevator, additional tail

force causes down-bending of fuselage to
increase.

Pitching maneuvers create dramatically different loading on lifting surfaces. These, in turn change
the loading condition on the structure.
Roll Maneuvers due to flap and aileron deflections significantly change load distribution on the
wing (two upper figures below).

A roll maneuver (lower right figure above) will produce a damping load distribution on the wing,
i.e., because the roll maneuver (CCW above) wants to push air upwards, a downward force is
produced which tends to dampen the roll. Note that this wing loading is significantly different
than a typical elliptical-shaped loading due to aerodynamic lift.

A typical pressure distribution (vertical

component) on the fuselage of an aircraft in
level flight is shown to the right. What
happens in a pitch up or down maneuver?
How do changes in angle of attack change the loading that a typical wing box must carry, and
where maximum tensile and compressive stresses occur?

High positive angle of attack (+HAA) will place the upper, forward part of the wing box in
maximum compression and the lower, aft portion in maximum tension.

At low positive angle of attach (+LAA), the upper, aft part of the wing box will be in maximum
compression, and the lower, forward portion in maximum tension.

What does all this mean? Lots and lots of load cases for the structural designer to investigate and
desig
n
for…

Ground Loads

 Landing Conditions
 Level Landing (LL)
 Tail-Down Landing
 One-Wheel Landing
 Lateral-Drift Landing (LD)
 Rebound Landing

Ground Handling

Typically we think of aerodynamic loads as being of primary importance under normal situations.

 Landing Conditions:

A. Level Landing: Wheels are supporting the weight of the aircraft during landing impact.
B. Tail down landing:Is done at extreme angle of attack.

C. Lateral Drift Landing:

The aircraft with level landing but only main wheel on the ground.
 D. Rebound Landing: The landing gear and its supporting structure must be investigated for
the loads occurring during rebound of the airplane from the landing surface. With the
landing gear fully extended and not in contact with the ground, a load factor of 20.0 must act
on the unsprung weights of the landing gear. This load factor must act in the direction of
motion of the unsprung weights as they reach their limiting positions in extending with
relation to the sprung parts of the landing gear.

 Ground Handling:
A. Taxing

B. Takeoff run

C. Brake & Roll

D. Ground Turning
 E. Nose Gear Yawing

F. Pivoting

G. Reverse Braking

H. Towing

 Unsymmentrical loads on multiple wheels

 UNIT-II

FASTENERS AND STRUCTURAL JOINTS

 AIRCRAFT HARDWARE

Because of the small size of most hardware items, their importance is often overlooked. The
safe and efficient operation of any aircraft is greatly dependent upon correct selection and
use of aircraft structural hardware and seals. Aircraft hardware is discussed in detail in the
Structural Hardware Manual, NAVAIR 01-1A-8.
Aircraft hardware is usually identified by its specification number or trade name.
Threaded fasteners and rivets are usually identified by AN (Air Force-Navy), NAS (National
Aircraft Standard), and MS (Military Standard) numbers. Quick-release fasteners are
usually identified by factory trade names and size designations.

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL HARDWARE

The term aircraft structural hardware refers to many items used in aircraft construction.
These items include such hardware as rivets, fasteners, bolts, nuts, screws, washers,
cables, guides, and common electrical system hardware.
RIVETS
The fact that there are thousands of rivets in an airframe is an indication of how important
riveting is. A glance at any aircraft will show the thousands of rivets in the outer skin alone.
Besides the riveted skin, rivets are also used for joining spar sections, for holding rib
sections in place, for securing fittings to various parts of the aircraft, and for fastening
bracing members and other parts together.
Rivets that are satisfactory for one part of the aircraft are often unsatisfactory for another
part. Therefore, it is important that you know the strength and driving properties of the
various types of rivets and how to identify, drive, or install them.

Solid Rivets
Solid rivets are classified by their head shape, by the material from which they are
manufactured, and by their size. Rivet head shapes and their identifying code numbers are
shown in Figure 6-1. The prefix MS identifies hardware that conforms to written military
standards. The prefix AN identifies specifications that are developed and issued under the
joint authority of the Air Force and the Navy.
Rivet Identification Code
The rivet codes shown in Figure 6-1 are sufficient to identify rivets only by head shape. To
be meaningful and precisely identify a rivet, certain other information is encoded and
added to the basiccode. A letter, or letters, following the head-shaped code identify the
material or alloy from which the rivet was made. Table 6-1 includes a listing of the most
common of these codes. The alloy code is followed by two numbers separated by a dash.
The first number is the numerator of a fraction, which specifies the shank diameter in
thirty-seconds of an inch. The second number is the numerator of a fraction in sixteenths
of an inch, and identifies the length of the rivet. The rivet code is shown in Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-1 — Rivet head shapes and code numbers.

 Rivet Composition

Most of the rivets used in aircraft construction are made of aluminum alloy. A few
special-purpose rivets are made of mild steel, Monel, titanium, and copper. Those
aluminum alloy rivets made of 1100, 2117, 2017, 2024, and 5056 are considered
standard.
ALLOY 1100 RIVETS — Alloy 1100 rivets are supplied as fabricated (F) temper and are driven
in this condition. No further treatment of the rivet is required before use, and the rivet's
properties do not change with prolonged periods of storage. They are relatively soft and
easy to drive. The cold work resulting from driving increases their strength slightly. The
1100-F rivets are used only for riveting nonstructural parts. These rivets are identified by
their plain head, as shown in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 — Rivet Material Identification

HEAD MARKING ON
MATERIAL OR ALLOY CODE LETTERS RIVET

1100-F A Plain
2117-T4 AD Indented Dimple
2017-T4 D Raised Teat
2024-T4 DD Raised Double Dash
5056-H32 B Raised Cross
ALLOY 2117 RIVETS — Like the 1100-F rivets, these rivets need no further treatment before
use and can be stored indefinitely. They are furnished in the solution-heat-treated (T4)
temper, but change to the solution-heat-treated and cold-worked (T3) temper after driving.
The 2117-T4 rivet is in general use throughout aircraft structures and is by far the most
widely used rivet, especially in repair work. In most cases the 2117-T4 rivet may be
substituted for 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 rivets for repair work by using a rivet with the next
larger diameter. This is desirable since both the 2017-T4 and 2024-T4 rivets must be heat-
treated before they are used or kept in cold storage. The 2117-T4 rivets are identified by a
dimple in the head.
ALLOY 2017 AND 2024 RIVETS — Both these rivets are supplied in the T4 temper and must
be heat-treated. These rivets must be driven within 20 minutes after quenching or
refrigerated at or below 32 °F to delay the aging time 24 hours. If either time is exceeded,
reheat treatment is required. These rivets may be reheated as many times as desired,
provided the proper solution heat-treatment temperature is not exceeded. The 2024-T4
rivets are stronger than the 2017-T4 and, therefore, are harder to drive. The 2017-T4 rivet
is identified by the raised teat on the head, while the 2024-T4 has two raised dashes on the
head.
ALLOY 5056 RIVETS — These rivets are used primarily for joining magnesium alloy
structures because of their corrosion-resistant qualities. They are supplied in the H32
temper (strain-hardened and then stabilized). These rivets are identified by a raised cross
on the head. The 5056-H32 rivet may be stored indefinitely with no change in its driving
characteristics.

BlindRivets
In places accessible from only one side or where space on one side is too restricted to
properly usea bucking bar, blind rivets are usually used. Blind rivets may also be used to
secure nonstructural parts to theairframe.
 Self-Plugging Mechanical Lock

Figure 6-3 shows a blind rivet that uses a

mechanical lock between the head of the
rivet and the pull stem. This lock holds
the shank firmly in place from the head
side.
The self-plugging rivet is made of 5056-
H14 aluminum alloy and includes the
conical recess and locking collar in the
rivet head. The stem is made of 2024- T36
aluminum alloy. Pull grooves that fit Figure 6-3 — Self-plugging rivet (mechanical lock).
into the jaws of the rivet gun are provided
on the stem end that protrudes above the
rivet head. The blind end portion of the
stem incorporates a head and a land (the
raised portion of the grooved surface)with
an extruding angle that expands the rivet
shank.
Applied loads for self-plugging rivets are
comparable to those for solid shank rivets
of the same shear strength, regardless of
sheet thickness. The composite shear Figure 6-4 — Self-plugging rivet (friction lock).
strength of the 5056-H14 shank and the
Self-Plugging Friction Lock
Self-plugging friction lock rivets are available in universal
and flush head styles and are manufactured from 2117 and
5056 aluminum alloy and Monel. Self- plugging friction lock
rivets cannot be substituted for solid rivets, nor can they
be used in critical applications, such as control surface
hinge brackets, wing attachment fittings, landing gear
fittings, and fluid-tight joints. Figure 6-4 shows a self-
plugging friction lockrivet.

Hi-Shear Rivets®

Hi-shear® (pin) rivets are essentially threadless bolts.

The pin is headed at one end and is grooved about the
circumference at the other. A metal collar is swaged
onto the grooved end. They are available in two
headstyles—Figure 6-5 — Hi-Shear® rivet.
rivet thick-gauge sheets together. They are never used with a grip length that is less than the shank
diameter. Hi-Shear® rivets
Hi-Shear® rivets are identified by code numbers similar to the solid rivets. The size of the rivet is measured in
increments of thirty-seconds of an inch for the diameter and sixteenths of an inch for the grip length. For
example, an NAS1055-5-7 rivet would be a Hi-Shear® rivet with a countersunk head. Its diameter would be
5/32 of an inch and its maximum grip length would be 7/16 of an inch.
The collars are identified by a basic code number and a dash number that correspond to the diameter of the
rivet. An A before the dash number indicates an aluminum alloy collar. The NAS528-A5 collar would be used
on a 5/32-inch-diameter rivet pin. Repair procedures involving the installation or replacement of Hi-Shear®
rivets generally specify the collar to be used.

Rivnuts

The rivnut is a hollow rivet made of 6063 aluminum alloy,

counterbored and threaded on the inside. It is manufactured in two
head styles—flat and countersunk—and in two shank designs—
open and closed ends. See Figure 6-6. Each of these rivets is
available in three sizes: 6-32, 8-32, and 10-32. These numbers
indicate the nominal diameter and the actual number of threads
per inch of the machine screw that fits into therivnut.
Open-end rivnuts are more widely used and are generally the
recommended and preferred type. However, in sealed flotation or
pressurized compartments, the closed-end rivnut
must be used.

Hi-Lok® Fasteners
FASTENERS (SPECIAL)
Fasteners on aircraft are designed for many different functions. Some
are made for high-strength requirements, while others are designed
for easy installation and removal.

Lock-Bolt Fasteners
Lock-bolt fasteners are designed to meet high-strength
requirements. Used in many structural applications, their shear and
tensile strengths equal or exceed the requirements of AN and NAS
bolts.
The lock-bolt pin, shown in View Aof Figure 6-7, consists of a pin and
collar. It is available in two head styles: protruding and countersunk.
Pin retention is accomplished by swaging the collar into the locking
grooves on the pin.
The blind lock bolt, shown in View B of Figure 6-7, is similar to the
self-plugging rivet shown in Figure 6-3. It features a positive Figure 6-7 — Lock bolts.
mechanical lock for pin retention.
The Hi-Lok® fastener, shown in Figure 6-8, combines the features of a rivet and a bolt and is used for high-
strength, interference-free fit of primary structures. The Hi-Lok® fastener consists of a threaded pin and
steel. The threaded end of the pin is
recessed with a hexagon socket to allow
installation from one side. The major
diameter of the threaded part of the pin has
been truncated (cut undersize) to
accommodate a 0.004-inch maximum
interference-free fit. One end of the collar is
internally recessed with a 1/16-inch, built-in
variation that automatically provides for
variable material thickness without the use
of washers and without fastener preload
changes. The other end of the collar has a Figure 6-8 — Hi-Lok®fastener.
torque-off wrenching
device that controls a predetermined residual
tension of preload (10%) in the fastener.

Jo-Bolt® Fasteners
The Jo-Bolt®, shown in Figure 6-9, is a high- strength,
blind structural fastener that is used on difficult riveting
jobs when access to one side of the work is impossible.
The Jo-Bolt® consists of three factory-assembled parts:
an aluminum alloy or alloy steel nut, a threaded alloy
steel bolt, and a corrosion-resistant steel sleeve. The
head styles available for Jo-bolts are the 100-degree
flush head, the hexagon protruding head, and the 100-
degree flush millable head.

FASTENERS (THREADED)

Although thousands of rivets are used in aircraft

construction, many parts require frequent dismantling
or replacement. For these parts, use some form of Figure 6-9 —Jo-Bolt®.
threaded fastener. Furthermore, some joints require
greater strength and rigidity than can be provided by
riveting. Manufacturers solve this
problem by using various types of screws, bolts, nuts, washers, and fasteners.
Bolts and screws are similar in that both have a head at one end and a screwthread at the other, but there
are several differences between them. The threaded end of a bolt is always relatively blunt, while that of a
screw may be either blunt or pointed. The threaded end of a bolt must be screwed into a nut, but the
threaded end of the screw may fit into a nut or other female arrangement, or directly into the material being
secured. A bolt has a fairly short threaded section and a comparatively long grip length (the unthreaded part);
a screw may have a longer threaded section and no clearly defined grip length. A bolt assembly is generally
tightened by turning its nuts. Its head may or may not be designed to be turned. A screw is always designed
to be turned by its head. Another minor but frequent difference between a screw and a bolt is that a screw is
usually made of lower strength materials.
Threads on aircraft bolts and screws are of the American National Standard type. This standard contains two
series of threads: national coarse (NC) and national fine (NF). Most aircraft threads are of the NF series.
Threads are also produced in right-hand and left-hand types. A right-hand thread advances into
engagement when turned clockwise. A left-hand thread advances into engagement when turned
counterclockwise.
Threads are sized by both the diameter and the number of threads per inch. The diameter is designated by
screw gauge number for sizes up to 1/4 inch, and by nominal size for those 1/4 inch and larger. Screw gauge
numbers range from 0 to 12, except that numbers 7, 9, and 11 are omitted. Threads are designated by the
diameter, number of threads per inch, thread series, and class in parts catalogs, on blueprints, and on repair
diagrams.
For example, No. 8-32NF-3 indicates a No. 8 size thread, 32 threads per inch, national fine series, and a class 3
thread. Also, 1/4-20NC-3 indicates a 1/4-inch thread, 20 threads per inch, national coarse series, and a class 3
thread. A left-hand thread is indicated by the letters LH following the class of thread.

Bolts

Many types of bolts are used on aircraft. Before

discussion of some of these types, it might be helpful
to view a list containing information about commonly
used bolt terms. Important information about the
names of bolt parts and bolt dimensions that must be
considered in selecting a bolt is shown in Figure 6- 10.
The three principal parts of a bolt are the head,
thread, and grip. The head is the larger diameter of
the bolt and may be one of many shapes or designs.
The head keeps the bolt in place in one direction,
and the nut used on the threads keeps it in placein Figure 6-10 — Bolt terms and dimensions.
the otherdirection.
To choose the correct replacement, several bolt dimensions must be considered. One is the length of the
bolt.. Correct length selection is indicated when the chosen bolt extends through the nut at least two full
threads. In the case of flat-end bolts or chamfered (rounded) end bolts, at least the full chamfer plus one
full thread should extend through the nut. See Figure 6-10. If the bolt is too short, it may not extend out of
the bolt hole far enough for the nut to be securely fastened. If it is too long, it may extend so far that it
interferes with the movement of nearby parts. Unnecessarily long bolts can affect weight and balance and
reduce the aircraft payload capacity.
In addition, if a bolt is too long or too short, its grip is usually the wrong length. As shown in Figure 6- 11,
grip length should be approximately the same as the thickness of the material to be fastened. If the grip
is too short, the threads of the bolt will extend into the bolt hole and may act like a reamer when the
material is vibrating. To prevent
reaming, no more than two threads should
extend into the bolt hole. Also, users should be
certain that any threads that enter the bolt hole
extend only into the thicker member that is
being fastened. If the grip is too long, the nut will
run out of threads before it can be tightened. In
this event, a bolt with a shorter grip should be
used, or if the bolt grip extends
only a short distance through the hole, a
Figure 6-11 — Correct and incorrect grip lengths.
washer may be used.
A second bolt dimension that must be considered is diameter. Figure 6-11 shows that the diameter of the bolt
is the thickness of its shaft. If this thickness is 1/4 of an inch or more, the bolt diameter is usually given in
fractions of an inch (for example, 1/4, 5/16, 7/16, and 1/2). However, if the bolt is less than 1/4 of an inch
thick, the diameter is usually expressed as a whole number. For instance, a bolt that is 0.190 inch in diameter
is called a No. 10 bolt, while a bolt that is 0.164 inch in diameter is called a No. 8.
The results of using a bolt of the wrong diameter should be obvious. If the bolt is too big, it cannot enter
the bolt hole. If the diameter is too small, the bolt has too much play in the bolt hole, and it is likely not as
strong as the correct bolt.
The third and fourth bolt dimensions to consider when
choosing a bolt replacement are head thickness and width.
If the head is too thin or too narrow, it may not be strong
enough to bear the load imposed on it. If the head is too
thick or too wide, it may extend so far that it interferes with
the movement of adjacentparts.
BOLT HEADS — The most common type of head is the hex
head. See Figure 6-12. This type of head may be thick for
greater strength or relatively thin in order to fit in places
having limited clearances. In addition, the head may be
common or drilled to lockwire the bolt. A hex-head bolt
may have a single hole drilled through it between two of
the sides of the hexagon and still be classed as common.
The drilled head-hex bolt has three holes drilled in the
head, connecting opposite sides of the hex. Seven
additional types of bolt heads
are shown in Figure 6-12. Figure 6-12 — Different types of bolts.

View Ashows an eyebolt, often used in flight control systems.

View B shows a countersunk-head, close-tolerance bolt.
View C shows an internal-wrenching bolt. Both the countersunk-head bolt and the internal-wrenching bolt
have hexagonal recesses (six-sided holes) in their heads. They are tightened and loosened by use of
appropriately sized Allen wrenches.
View D shows a clevis bolt with its characteristic round head. This head may be slotted, as shown, to receive a
common screwdriver or recessed to receive a Reed-and-Prince or a Phillips screwdriver.
View E shows a torque-set wrenching recess that has four driving wings, each one offset from the one
opposite it. There is no taper in the walls of the recess. This permits higher torque to be applied with less of
a tendency for the driver to slip or cam out of the slots.
View F shows an external-wrenching head that has a washer face under the head to provide an
increased bearing surface. The 12-point head gives a greater wrench-gripping surface.
View G shows a hi-torque style driving slot. This single slot is narrower at the center than at the outer
portions. This design, and the center dimple, provides the slot with a bow tie appearance. The recess is also
undercut in a taper from the center to the outer ends, producing an inverted keystone shape. These bolts
must be installed with a special hi-torque driver adapter. They must also be driven with some type of torque-
limiting or torque-measuring device. Each diameter of bolt requires the proper size of driver for that particular
bolt. The bolts are available in standard and reduced 100-degree flush heads. The reduced head requires a
driver one size smaller than the standard head.
BOLT THREADS — Another structural feature in which
bolts may differ is threads. These usually come in one of
two types: coarse and fine. The two are not
interchangeable. For any given size of bolt there are a
different number of coarse and fine threads per inch.
For instance, consider the 1/4-inch bolts. Some are
called 1/4-28 bolts because they have 28 fine threads
per inch. Others have only 20 coarse threads per inch
and are called 1/4-20 bolts. To force one size of threads
into another size, even though both are 1/4 of an inch,
can strip the finer threads of softer metal. The same
result is true concerning the other sizes of bolts;
therefore, it is important to be certain that selected
bolts have the correct type of threads.
BOLT MATERIALS — The type of metal used in an aircraft
bolt helps to determine its strength and its resistance to
corrosion. Therefore, it is important that material is
considered in the selection of replacement bolts. Like Figure 6-13 — Bolt head markings.
solid shank rivets,bolts
have distinctive head markings that help to identify the
material from which they [Link] tops of
several hex-head bolts—each marked to indicate the
type of bolt material.
BOLT IDENTIFICATION — Unless current directives
specify otherwise, every unserviceable bolt should be
replaced with a bolt of the same type. Of course,
substitute and interchangeable items are sometimes
available, but the ideal fix is a bolt-for-bolt
replacement. The part number of a needed bolt may be
obtained by referring to the illustrated parts
breakdown (IPB) for the aircraft concerned. Exactly
what this part number means depends upon whether
the bolt is AN, NAS, or MS.
AN Part Number — There are several classes of AN
bolts, and in some instances their part numbers reveal
slightly different types of [Link], most
AN numbers contain the same type of information.
Figure 6-14 — AN bolt part number
breakdown.

A breakdown of a typical AN bolt part number. Like the AN rivets discussed earlier, it starts with the letters
AN. Next, a number follows the letters. This number usually consists of two digits. The first digit (or absence
of it) shows the class of the bolt. For instance the series number has only one digit, and the absence of one
digit shows that this part number represents a general-purpose hex-head bolt. However, the part numbers
for some bolts of this class have two digits. In fact, general-purpose hex-head bolts include all part numbers
from AN3 to [Link] series numbers and the classes of bolts they represent are asfollows:
 AN21 through AN36—clevis boltsAN42 through AN49—eyebolts
The series number shows another type of information other than bolt class. With a few exceptions, it indicates
bolt diameter in sixteenths of an inch. For instance, in Figure 6-14, the last digit of the series number is 4;
therefore, this bolt is 4/16 of an inch (1/4 of an inch) in diameter. In the case of a series number ending in 0 —
for instance, AN30—the 0 stands for 10, and the bolt has a diameter of 10/16 of an inch (5/8 of an inch).
Refer to Figure 6-14 again and observe that a dash follows the series number. When used in the part
numbers for general-purpose AN bolts, clevis bolts, and eyebolts, this dash indicates that the bolt is made of
carbon steel. With these types of bolts, the letter C, used in place of the dash, means corrosion-resistant
steel. The letter D means 2017 aluminum alloy. The letters DD stand for 2024 aluminum alloy. For some bolts
of this type, a letter H is used with these letters or with the dash. If it is used, the letter H shows that the bolt
has been drilled for safetying.
Next, observe the number 20 that follows the dash. This is called the dash number. It represents the bolt's grip
(as taken from special tables). In this instance the number 20 stands for a bolt that is 2 1/32 inches long.
The last character in the AN number shown in Figure 6-14 is the letter A. This signifies that the bolt is not
drilled for cotter pin safetying. If no letter were used after the dash number, the bolt shank would be drilled
for safetying.
MS Part Number — MS is another series of bolts
used in aircraft construction. In the part number
shown in Figure 6-15, the MS indicates that the
bolt is a Military Standard bolt. The series number
(20004) indicates the bolt class and diameter in
sixteenths of an inch (internal-wrenching, 1/4-inch
diameter). The letter H before the dash number
indicates that the bolt has a drilled head for
[Link]
dash number (9) indicates the bolt grip in
Figure 6-15 — MS bolt part number breakdown.
sixteenths of an inch.
NAS Part Number — Another series of bolts used
in aircraft construction is the NAS. See Figure 6-16.
In considering the NAS144-25 bolt (special
internal-wrenching type), the bolt identification
code starts with the letters NAS. Next, the series
has a three-digit number, 144. The first two digits
(14) show the class of the bolt. The next number
(4) indicates the bolt diameter in sixteenths of an
inch. The dash number (25) indicates bolt grip in
sixteenths of an inch.
Figure 6-16 — NAS bolt part number breakdown.
Nuts
Aircraft nuts differ in design and material, just as bolts do, because they are designed to do a specific job with
the bolt. For instance, some of the nuts are made of cadmium-plated carbon steel, stainless steel, brass, or
aluminum alloy. The type of metal used is not identified by markings on the nuts themselves. Instead, the
material must be recognized from the luster of the metal.
Nuts also differ greatly in size and shape. In spite of these many and varied differences, they all fall under
one of two general groups: self-locking and nonself-locking. Nuts are further divided into types
such as plain nuts, castle nuts, check nuts, plate nuts, channel nuts, barrel nuts, internal-wrenching nuts,
external-wrenching nuts, shear nuts, sheet spring nuts, wing nuts, and Klincher locknuts.
NONSELF-LOCKING NUTS — Nonself-locking nuts require the use of a separate locking device for security of
installation. There are several types of these locking devices mentioned in the following paragraphs in
connection with the nuts on which they are used. Since no single locking device can be used with all types of
nonself-locking nuts, one must be selected that is suitable for the type of nut being used.
SELF-LOCKING NUTS — Self-locking nuts provide tight
connections that will not loosen under vibrations. Self-
locking nuts approved for use on aircraft meet critical
strength, corrosion-resistance, and temperature
specifications. The two major types of self-locking nuts are
prevailing torque and free spinning. The two general types
of prevailing torque nuts are the all-metal nuts and the
nonmetallic insert nuts. New self-locking nuts must be used
each time components are installed in critical areas
throughout the entire aircraft, including all flight, engine,
and fuel control linkage and attachments. The flexloc nut is
an example of the all- metal type. The elastic stop nut is an
example of the nonmetallic insert type. All-metal self-
locking nuts are constructed with the threads in the load-
carrying portion of the nut out of phase with the threads in
thelocking
portion, or with a saw cut top portion with a pinched-in Figure 6-17—Nuts.
thread. The locking action of these types depends upon
the resiliency of the metal when the locking section and
load-carrying section are forced into alignment when
engaged by the bolt or screw threads.
PLAIN HEX NUTS — These nuts are available in self-
locking or nonself-locking styles. When the nonself-
locking nuts are used, they should be locked with an
auxiliary locking device such as a check nut or lock
washer. See Figure 6-17.
CASTLE NUTS — These nuts are used with drilled shank
bolts, hex-head bolts, clevis bolts, eyebolts, and drilled-
head studs. These nuts are designed to be secured with
cotter pins or safety wire.
CASTELLATED NUTS — Like the castle nuts, these nuts
are castellated for safetying. They are not as strong or
cut as deep as the castlenuts.
CHECK NUTS — These nuts are used in locking
devices for nonself-locking plain hex nuts, setscrews, Figure 6-18—Self-locking plate nuts.
and threaded rod ends.
PLATE NUTS — These nuts are used for blind mounting in inaccessible locations and for easier
maintenance. They are available in a wide range of sizes and shapes. One-lug, two-lug, and right- angle
shapes are available to accommodate the specific physical requirements of nut locations.
Floating nuts provide a controlled amount of nut movement to compensate for subassembly
misalignment. They can be either self-locking or nonself-locking. See Figure 6-18.
CHANNEL NUTS — These nuts are used in applications requiring anchored nuts equally spaced around
openings such as access and inspection doors and removable leading edges. Straight or curved channel nut
strips offer a wide range of nut spacing and provide a multinut unit that has all the advantages of floating
nuts. They are usually self-locking.
BARREL NUTS — These nuts are installed in drilled holes. The round portion of the nut fits in the drilled hole
and provides a self-wrenching effect. They are usually self-locking.
INTERNAL-WRENCHING NUTS — These

nuts are generally used where a nut with a high

tensile strength is required or where space is
limited and the use of external-wrenching nuts
would not permit the use of conventional
wrenches for installation and removal. This is
usually where the bearing surface is
counterbored. These nuts have a nonmetallic
insert that provides the locking action.
POINT WRENCHING NUTS — These nuts are
generally used where a nut with a high tensile
strength is required. These nuts are installed
with a small socket wrench. They are usually
self-locking.
SHEAR NUTS — These nuts are designed for use
with devices such as drilled clevis bolts and
threaded taper pins that are normally subjected to
shearing stress only. They are usually self-locking.
SHEET SPRING NUTS — These nuts areused with standard
Figure 6-19 — Sheet spring nut.
and sheet metal self-tapping screws to support line clamps,
conduit clamps, electrical equipment, and access doors. The
most common types are the float, the two-lug anchor, and the
one-lug anchor. The nuts have an arched spring lock that
prevents the screw from working [Link] should be used
only where originally used in the fabrication of the aircraft.

WING NUTS — These nuts are used where the

desired tightness is obtained by the use of your
fingers and where the assembly is frequently
removed.
KLINCHER LOCKNUTS — Klincher locknuts are used to
ensure a permanent and vibration-proof, bolted
connection that holds solidly and resists thread wear. It
will withstand extremely high or low temperatures and
exposure to lubricants, weather, and compounds without
impairing the effectiveness of the locking element.
Screws

The most common threaded fastener used in aircraft

construction is the screw. The three most used types are
the structural screw, machine screw, and the self- tapping
screw.
STRUCTURAL SCREWS — Structural screws are used for
assembling structural parts. They are made of alloy steel and
are heat-treated. Structural screws have a definite grip
length and the same shear and tensile strengths as the
equivalent size bolt. They differ from structural bolts only in
the type of head. These screws are available in round-head,
countersunk-head, and brazier-head types, either slotted or
recessed for the various types of screwdrivers. See Figure 6-
21.
MACHINE SCREWS — The commonly used machine screws
are the flush-head, round-head, fillister-head, socket-
head, pan-head, and truss-head types.
Flush-Head — Flush-head machine screws are used in
countersunk holes where a flush finish is desired. These
screws are available in 82 and 100 degrees of head angle and
have various types of recesses and slots for driving.
Figure 6-21 — Structural screws.
Round-Head — Round-head machine screws are frequently used to assemble highly stressed aircraft
components.
Fillister-Head — Fillister-head machine screws are used as general-purpose screws. They may also be used as
cap screws in light applications, such as the attachment of cast aluminum gearbox cover plates.
Socket-Head — Socket-head machine screws are designed to be screwed into tapped holes by internal
wrenching. They are used in applications that require high-strength precision products, compactness of
the assembled parts, or sinking of the head into holes.
Pan- and Truss-Head — Pan-head and truss-head screws are general-purpose screws used where head
height is unimportant. These screws are available with cross-recessed heads only.
SELF-TAPPING SCREWS — A self-tapping screw is one that cuts its own internal threads as it is turned into the
hole. Self-tapping screws can be used only in comparatively soft metals and materials. Self-tapping screws
may be further divided into two classes or groups: machine self-tapping screws and sheet metal self-tapping
screws.
Machine self-tapping screws are usually used for attaching removable parts, such as nameplates, to castings.
The threads of the screw cut mating threads in the casting after the hole has been predrilled. Sheet metal
self-tapping screws
are used for such purposes as temporarily
attaching sheet metal in place for riveting.
They may also be used for permanent CAUTION
assembly of nonstructural parts, where it is
necessary to insert screws in blind Self-tapping screws should never be used to replace
applications. standard screws, nuts, or rivets in the original structure.
Over a time, vibration and stress will loosen this type of
Washers

Washers such as ball socket and seat washers, taper pin

washers, and washers for internal-wrenching nuts and bolts
have been designed for special applications. See Figure 6-22.
Ball socket and seat washers are used where a bolt is
installed at an angle to the surface, or where perfect
alignment with the surface is required at all times. These
washers are used together.
Taper pin washers are used in conjunction with threaded
taper pins. They are installed under the nut to effect
adjustment where a plain washer would distort.
Washers for internal-wrenching nuts and bolts are used in
conjunction with NAS internal-wrenching bolts. The washer
used under the head is countersunk to seat the bolt head or
shank radius. A plain washer is used under the nut.
Figure 6-22 — Various types of special
Turnlock Fasteners washers.

Turnlock fasteners are used to secure panels that

require frequent removal. These fasteners are
available in several different styles and are usually
referred to by the manufacturer's trade name.
CAMLOC FASTENERS — The 4002 series Camloc fastener
consists of four principal parts: the receptacle, the
grommet, the retaining ring, and the stud assembly. See
Figure 6-23. The receptacle is an aluminum alloy forging
mounted in a stamped sheet metal base. The receptacle
assembly is riveted to the access door frame, which is
attached to the structure of the aircraft. The grommet is a
sheet metal ring held in the access panel with the
retaining ring. Grommets are furnished in two types: the
flush type and the protruding type. Besides serving as a
grommet for the hole in the access panel, it also holds the
stud assembly. The stud assembly consists of a stud, a
cross pin, a spring, and a spring cup. The assembly is
designed so it can be quickly inserted into the grommet by
compressing the spring. Once installed in the grommet,
the stud assembly cannot be removed unless the spring is Figure 6-23 — Camloc 4002 series
again compressed. fastener.

The Camloc high-stress panel fastener, shown in Figure 6-24, is a high-strength, quick-release rotary fastener
and may be used on flat or curved inside or outside panels. The fastener may have either a flush or a
protruding stud. The studs are held in the panel with flat or cone-shaped washers—the latter being used with
flush fasteners in dimpled holes. This fastener may be distinguished from screws by the deep No. 2 Phillips
recess in the stud head and by the bushing in which the stud is installed.
 A threaded insert in the receptacle provides an adjustable
locking device. As the stud is inserted and turned
counterclockwise one-half turn or more, it screws out the
insert to permit the stud key to engage the insert cam when
turned clockwise. Rotating the studclockwise one-fourth turn
engages the insert. Continued rotation screws the insert in
and tightens the fastener. Turning the stud one-fourth turn
counterclockwise will release the stud, but will not screw the
insert out far enough to permit re-engagement. The stud
should be turned at least one-half turn counterclockwise to
reset theinsert.
DZUS FASTENERS — Dzus fasteners are available in two
types. A light-duty type is used on box covers, access hole
covers, and lightweight fairings. The heavy- duty type is used
on cowling and heavy fairings. The main difference between
the two Dzus fasteners is a grommet, which is used only on
the heavy-duty fasteners. Otherwise, their construction
features are about the same. Figure 6-24 — Camloc high-stress
panel fastener.
Figure 6-25 shows the parts of a light-duty Dzus fastener.
Notice that they include a spring and a stud. The spring is
made of cadmium-plated steel music wire and is usually
riveted to an aircraft structural member. The stud comes
in a number of designs (as shown in Views A, B, and C) and
mounts in a dimpled hole in the cover assembly.
When the panel is being positioned on an aircraft, the
spring riveted to the structural member enters the hollow
center of the stud. Then, when the stud is turned about
one-fourth turn, the curved jaws of the stud slip over the
spring and compress it. The resulting tension locks the
stud in place and secures the panel.

Miscellaneous Fasteners

Some fasteners cannot be classified as rivets, turnlocks, or

threaded fasteners. Included in this category are
connectors, couplings, clamps, taper and flat-head pins,
snap rings, studs, and heli-coil inserts.
Figure 6-25 — Dzus fastener.

FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS AND COUPLINGS — A variety of clamping devices are used to connect ducting sections
to each other or to various components. Whenever lines, components, or ducting are disconnected or removed
for any reason, suitable plugs, caps, or coverings should be installed on the openings to prevent the entry of
foreign materials. Various parts should also be tagged to ensure correct reinstallation. Care should be exercised
during handling and installation to ensure that flanges are not scratched, distorted, or deformed. Flange
surfaces should be free of dirt, grease, and corrosion. The protective flange caps should be left on the ends of
the ducting until the installation progresses to the point that removal is necessary.
In most cases it is mandatory to discard and replace
seals and gaskets. It is important to ensure that seals
and gaskets are properly seated and that mating and
alignment of flanges are fitted. This will prevent the
excessive torque required to close the joint, which
imposes structural loads on the clamping devices.
Adjacent support clamps and brackets should remain
loose until installation of the coupling has been
completed.
Some of the most commonly used plain-band couplings
are shown in Figure 6-26. When a hose is installed
between two duct sections, the gap between the duct
ends should be a minimum of 1/8 of an inch and a
maximum of 3/4 of an inch.
When the clamps are installed on the connection, the
clamps should be 1/4 of an inch from the end of the
connector. Misalignment between the ducting ends
should not exceed 1/8 of an inch.
Marman clamps are commonly used in ducting
systems and should be tightened to the torque value Figure 6-26 — Flexible line connectors.
indicated on the coupling. Tighten all couplings in the
manner and to the torque value specified on the
clamp or in the applicable maintenance instruction
manual (MIM).
When flexible couplings are installed—such as the
one shown in Figure 6-27—the following steps are
recommended to assure proper security:
1. Fold back half of the sleeve seal and slipit
onto thesleeve.
2. Slide the sleeve (with the sleeve
seal partially installed) onto theline.
3. Position the split sleeves over
theline beads.
4. Slide the sleeve over the split sleevesand
fold over the sleeve seal so it covers the
entire sleeve.
5. Install the coupling over the
sleeveseal and torque to correctvalue.
Figure 6-27 — Flexible line coupling.

RIGID COUPLINGS — The rigid line coupling shown in Figure 6-28 is referred to as a V-band coupling. When
installed in restricted areas, some of the stiffness of the coupling can be overcome by tightening the coupling
over a spare set of flanges and a gasket to the recommended torque value of the joint. Before the coupling is
removed, it should be tapped a few times with a plastic mallet.
When rigid couplings are installed, the steps below should be followed:
Figure 6-28 — Installation of rigid line couplings.

Figure 6-29 — Safetying a V-band coupling.

TAPER PINS — Taper pins are used in joints that
carry shear loads and where the absenceof
clearance is essential. See Figure 6-30. The
threaded taper pin is used with a taper pin washer
and a shear nut if the taper pin is drilled, or with a
self-locking nut if undrilled. When a shear nut is
used with the threaded taper pin and washer, the
nut is secured with a cotterpin.
FLAT-HEAD PINS — The flat-head pin is used with
tie rod terminals or secondary controls that do
not operate continuously. The flat-head pin
should be secured with a cotter pin. The pin is
normally installed with the head up. See Figure 6-
30. This precaution is taken to maintain the flat-
head pin in the installed position in case of cotter
pin failure.
SNAP RINGS — A snap ring is a ring of metal,
either round or flat in cross section, that is
tempered to have springlike action. This springlike
action will hold the snap ring firmly seated in a Figure 6-30 — Types of aircraft pins.
groove. The external types are designed to fit in a
groove around the outside of
a shaft or cylinder. The internal types fit in a
groove inside a cylinder. Special pliers are
designed to install each type of snap ring.
Snap rings can be reused as long as they
retain their shape and springlike action.
External snap rings may be safety wired, but
internal types are never safetied.
STUDS — There are four types of studs used in
aircraft structural applications. They are the
coarse thread, fine thread, stepped, and lockring
studs. Studs may be drilled or undrilled on the
nut end. Coarse (NAS183) and fine (NAS184)
thread studs are manufactured from alloy steel
and are heat-treated. They have identical threads
on both ends. The stepped stud has a different
thread on each end of the stud. The lockring stud
may be substituted for undersize or oversize Figure 6-31 — Heli-coil insert.
studs. The lockring on this stud prevents it from
backing out due to vibration, stress, or HELI-COIL INSERTS — Heli-coil thread inserts
temperaturevariations. are primarily designed to be used in materials
Refer to the Structural Hardware Manual, that are not suitable for threading because of
NAVAIR 01-1A-8, for more detailed their softness. The inserts are made of a
information on studs. diamond cross- sectioned stainless steel wire
made with a tang that forms a portion of the bottom coil offset and is used to drive the insert. This tang is
left on the insert after installation, except when its removal is necessary to provide clearance for the end of
the bolt. The tang is notched to break off from the body of the insert, thereby providing full penetration for
the fastener.
The second type of insert used is the self-locking, mid-grip insert, which has a specially formed grip coil
midway on the insert. This produces a gripping effect on the engaging screw. For quick identification, the
self-locking, mid-grip inserts are dyed red.

CABLES

A cable is a group of wires or a group of strands of wires twisted together into a strong wire rope. The wires
or strands may be twisted in various ways. The relationship of the direction of twist of each strand to each
other and to the cable as a whole is called the lay. The lay of the cable is an important factor in its strength.
If the strands are twisted in a direction opposite to the twist of the strands around the center strand or core,
the cable will not stretch (or set) as much as one in which they are all twisted in the same direction. This
direction of twist (in opposite direction) is most commonly adopted, and it is called a regular or an ordinary
lay. Cables may have a right regular lay or a left regular lay. If the strands are twisted in the direction of twist
around the center strand or core, the lay is called a lang lay. There is a right and left lang lay. The only other
twist arrangement—twisting the strands alternately right and left, and then twisting them all either to the
right or to the left about the core—is called a reverse lay. Most aircraft cables have a right regularlay.
When aircraft cables are manufactured, each strand is
first formed to the spiral or helical shape to fit the
position it is to occupy in the finished cable. The
process of such forming is called preforming, and
cables made by such a process are said to be
preformed. The process of preforming is adopted to
ensure flexibility in the finished cable and to relieve
bending and twisting stresses in the strands as they
are woven into the cable. It also keeps the strands
from spreading when the cable is cut. All aircraft
cables are internally lubricated during construction.
Aircraft control cables are fabricated either from
flexible, preformed carbon steel wire or from flexible,
preformed, corrosion-resistant steel wire. The small
corrosion-resistant steel cables are made of steel
containing not less than 17 percent chromium and 8
percent nickel, while the larger ones (those of the
5/16-, 3/8-, and 7/16-inch diameters) are made of
steel that, in addition to the amounts of chromium and
nickel just mentioned, also contains not less than Figure 6-32 — Cable cross section.
1.75 percentmolybdenum.
Cables may be designated 7 × 7, 7 × 19, or 6 × 19 Barrels and terminals are available in both
according to their construction. A 7 × 7 cable consists long and short lengths.
of six strands of seven wires each, laid around a center When you install a turnbuckle in a control
strand of seven wires. A 7 × 19 cable consists of six system, it is necessary to screw both of the
strands of 19 wires, laid around a 19-wire central terminals an equal number of turns into the
strand. A 6 × 19 IWRC cable consists of six strands of turnbuckle barrel. It is also essential that all
19 wires each, laid around an independent wire rope turnbuckle terminals be screwed into the
center. barrel, at least, until not more than three
The size of cable is given in terms of diameter threads are
measurement. A 1/8-inch cable or a 5/16-inch cable
means that the cable measures 1/8 inch or 5/16 inch
in diameter, as shown in Figure 6-32. Note that the
cable diameter is that of the smallest circle that
would enclose the entire cross section of the cable.
Aircraft control cables vary in diameters, ranging
from 1/16 of an inch to 3/8 of an inch.
Fittings

Cable ends may be equipped with several different types of

fittings such as terminals, thimbles, bushings, and shackles.
Terminal fittings are generally of the swaged type. Terminal
fittings are available with threaded ends, fork ends, eye
ends, and single-shank and double-shank ballends.
Threaded-end, fork-end, and eye-end terminals are used to
connect the cable to turnbuckles, bell cranks, and other
linkage in the system. The ball terminals are used for
attaching cable to quadrants and special connections where
space is limited. The single-shank ball end is usually used on
the ends of cables, and the double- shank ball end may be
used either at the ends or in the center of a cable run.
Figure 6-33 shows the various types of terminal fittings.
Thimble, bushing, and shackle fittings may be used in place
of some types of terminal fittings when facilities and
supplies are limited and immediate replacement of the cable
is necessary. Figure 6-34 shows these fittings.

Turnbuckles
A turnbuckle is a mechanical screw device that consists of
two threaded terminals and a threaded barrel. Figure 6-35
shows a typical turnbuckle assembly. Turnbuckles are
fitted in the cable assembly to make minor adjustments in
cable length and to adjust cable tension.
One of the terminals has right-hand threads and the other
has left-hand threads. The barrel has matching right- and
left-hand threads internally. The end of the barrel, with left-
hand threads inside, can usually be identified by either a
groove or knurl around the end of thebarrel.
Figure 6-33 — Types of cable terminal fittings. Figure 6-34 — Thimble, bushing, and
shackle fittings.

Figure 6-35 — Typical turnbuckle assembly.

exposed. On initial installation, the turnbuckle terminals should not be screwed inside the turnbuckle barrel more
than four threads. Figure 6- 36 shows turnbuckle thread tolerances.
After a turnbuckle is properly adjusted, it must be safetied. There are several methods of safetying turnbuckles.
However, only two methods have been adopted as standard procedures by the services: the clip-locking
(preferred) method and the wire- wrapping method.

Adjustable Connector Links

An adjustable connector link consists of two or three metal strips with holes arranged that they may be matched
and secured with a clevis bolt to adjust the length of the connector. They are installed in cable assemblies to make
major adjustments in cable length and to compensate for cable stretch. Adjustable connector links are usually
used in very long cable assemblies.

GUIDES
Fairleads (rubstrips), grommets,pressure seals, and pulleys are all types of cable
guides. They are used to prote ct control cables by preventing the cables from
rubbing against nearby metalparts.
They are also used as supports toreduce cable vibration in long stretches (runs) of
cable. Figure 6-37 shows some typical cable guides.

Fairleads
Fairleads may be made of a solid piece of material to completely encircle cables
when they pass through holes in
reduce cable whipping and vibration in long runs of cable. Split fairleads are made for easy installation around
single cables to protect them from rubbing on the edges of holes.

Grommets
Grommets are made of rubber, and they are used on small openings where single cables pass
through the walls of unpressurized compartments.

Pressure Seals
Pressure seals are used on cables or rods that must move through pressurized bulkheads. They fit tightly
enough to prevent air pressure loss, but not so tightly as to hinder movement of the unit.

Pulleys

Pulleys (or sheaves) are grooved wheels used to change cable direction and to allow the cable to move
with a minimum of friction. Most pulleys used on aircraft are made from layers of cloth impregnated with
phenolic resin and fused together under high temperatures and pressures. Aircraft pulleys are extremely
strong and durable and cause minimum wear on the cable passing over them. Pulleys are provided with
grease-sealed bearings and usually do not require further lubrication.
However, pulley bearings may be pressed out, cleaned, and relubricated with special equipment. This is
usually done by depot-level maintenance activities.
Pulley brackets made of sheet or cast aluminum are required with each pulley installed in the aircraft.
See Figure 6-38. Besides holding the pulley in the correct position and at the correct angle, the
brackets prevent the cable from slipping out of the groove on the pulley wheel.

SECTORS AND QUADRANTS

These units are generally constructed in the
form of an arc or in a complete circular form.
They are grooved around the outer
circumference to receive the cable, as shown
in Figure 6-38. The terms sector and quadrant
are used interchangeably. Sectors and
quadrants are similar to bell cranks and
walking beams, which are used for the same
purpose in rigid control systems.

AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL HARDWARE

An important part of aircraft electrical
maintenance is determining the correct
type of electrical hardware for a given job.
These maintenance functions normally
require a joint effort on the part of the AM
and the Aviation
 WIRE AND CABLE

For purposes of electrical installations, a wire is defined as a stranded conductor covered with an
insulating material. The term cable, as used in aircraft electrical installations, includes the
following:
 Two or more insulated conductors contained in the same jacket (multiconductorcable)
 Two or more insulated conductors twisted together (twisted pair)
 One or more insulated conductors covered with a metallic braided shield (shieldedcable)
 A single insulated conductor with a metallic braided outer conductor (RFcable)
For wire replacement work, the aircraft MIM should be consulted first. The manual should list the
wire used in a given aircraft.

CONNECTORS
Connectors are devices attached to the
ends of cables and sets of wires to make
them easier to connect and disconnect.
Each connector consists of a plug
assembly and a receptacle assembly. The
two assemblies are coupled by means of
a coupling nut. Each consists of an
aluminum shell containing an insulating
insert that holds the current-carrying
contacts. The plug is usually attached to
the cable end and is the part of the
connector on which the coupling nut is
mounted. The receptacle is the half of
the connector to which the plug is
connected. It is usually mounted on a
part of the equipment. One type of
connector assembly commonly used in
aircraft electrical systems is shown in Figure 6- recommended for use on naval aircraft. Soldered-
39. type terminals are usually used in emergencies
only.
The basic types of solderless terminals are shown in
TERMINALS Figure 6-40. They are the straight, right angle, flag,
and splice types. There are variations of these types.
Since most aircraft wires are stranded, it is
necessary to use terminal lugs to hold the strands
together. This allows a means of fastening the wires
to terminal studs. The terminals used in electrical
wiring are either of the soldered or crimped type.
Terminals used in repair work must be of the size
and type specified in the applicable MIM. The
solderless crimped-type terminals are generally
 Terminal
Hole

Right Angle
Straight

Flag Splice
 BONDING

An aircraft can become highly charged with static electricity while in flight. If the aircraft is improperly
bonded, not all metal parts have the same amount of static charge. A difference of potential exists
between the various metal surfaces. If the resistance between insulated metal surfaces is great enough,
charges can accumulate. The potential difference could become high enough to cause a spark. This
constitutes a fire
hazard and also causes radio
interference. If lighting strikes an
aircraft, a good conducting path
for heavy current is necessary to
minimize severe arcing and
sparks.
When all metal parts of an
aircraft are connected to
complete an electrical unit, the
result is called bonding. Bonding
connections are made of screws,
nuts, washers, clamps, and
bonding jumpers.
Figure 6-41 shows a Figure 6-41 — Typical bonding link installation.
typical bonding link
installation.

Bonding also provides the necessary low-resistance return path for single-wire electrical systems. This
low-resistance path provides a means of bringing the entire aircraft to the earth's potential when it is
grounded.
When an inspection is performed, both bonding connections and safetying devices must be inspected with
great care.

STATIC DISCHARGERS
Static dischargers are commonly known as static
wicks or static discharge wicks. They are used on
aircraft to allow the continuous satisfactory operation
of onboard navigation and radio communication
systems. During adverse charging conditions, they
limit the potential static buildup on the aircraft and
control interference generated by static charge. Static
dischargersare not lighting arrestors and do not
reduce or increase the likelihood of an aircraft being
struck by lightning. Static dischargers are subject to
damage or significant changes in resistance
characteristics as a result of lightning strike to the
aircraft, and they should be inspected after a
lightning strike to ensure proper static discharge
operation.
Static dischargers are fabricated with a wick of wire
or a conductive element on one end, which
provides a high-resistance discharge path
between the aircraft and the air. See Figure 6- Figure 6-42 -Typical static dischargers.
42. They are attached on some aircraft tothe
ailerons, elevators, rudder, wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer tips, etc. Refer to your aircraft's MIM for
maintenance procedures.

TORQUING OF FASTENERS

Fastener fatigue failure accounts for the majority of all fastener problems. Fatigue breaks are caused by
insufficient tightening and the lack of proper preload or clamping force. This results in movement between
the parts of the assembly and the bending back and forth or cyclic stressing of the fastener. Eventually, cracks
will progress to the point that the fastener can no longer support its designed load. At this point the fastener
fails with varying consequences.

TYPES OF TORQUE WRENCHES

The two most commonly used torque wrenches are the dial indicating type and the setting or click type.

Dial Indicating Type

This torque wrench measures change in applied torque through a deflecting member. A dial or digital
readout is located below the handle to permit convenient and accurate reading. Indicating torque
wrenches operate in clockwise and counterclockwise directions.

Setting or Click Type

This type of wrench compares the applied load to a self-contained standard. Reset is automatic upon release
of applied load.

TORQUING PROCEDURES

For the nut to properly load the bolt and prevent premature failure, a designated amount of torque must be
applied. Proper torque reduces the possibility of the fastener loosening while in service. The correct torque
to apply when you are tightening an assembly is based on many variables. The fastener is subjected to two
stresses when it is tightened. These stresses are tension and torsion.
Tension is the desired stress, while torsion is the undesirable stress caused by friction. A large
percentage of applied torque is used to overcome this friction, so that only tension remains after
tightening. Proper tension reduces the possibility of fluid leaks.
The recommended torque values provided in Table 6-2 have been established for average dry, cadmium-
plated nuts for both the fine and coarse thread series. Thread surface variations such as paint, lubrication,
hardening, plating, and thread distortion may alter these values considerably. The torque values must be
followed unless the MIM or structural repair manual for the specific aircraft requires a specific torque for a
given nut. Torque values vary slightly among manufacturers. When the torque values are included in a
technical manual, these values take precedence over the standard torque values provided in the Structural
Hardware Technical Manual, NAVAIR01-1A-8.
Separate torque tables and torquing considerations are provided in NAVAIR 01-1A-8 for the large variety
of nuts, bolts, and screws used in aircraft construction. This manual should be used when specific torque
values are not provided as a part of the removal/replacement instructions.
ranges should be used only when materials and surfaces being joined are of sufficient thickness, area, and
strength to resist breaking, warping, or other damage.
For corrosion-resistant steel nuts, the torque values given for shear-type nuts should be used. The use of any
type of drive-end extension on a torque wrench changes the dial reading required to obtain the actual values
indicated in the torque range tables. See Figure 6-43.

Figure 6-43 — Torque wrenches.

 Table 6-2 — Recommended Torque Values (Inch-Pounds)

CAUTION
THE FOLLOWING TORQUE VALUES ARE DERIVED FROM OIL-FREE
CADMIUM-PLATED THREADS.
TORQUE LIMITS RECOMMENDED FOR MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE TIGHTENING TORQUE LIMITS
INSTALLATION (BOLTS LOADED
PRIMARILY IN SHEAR)
Tension-type nuts Shear-type nuts Nuts MS20365 Nuts MS20364
Tap Size MS20365 and AN310 MS20364 and and AN310 and AN320
(40,000 psi in bolts) AN320 (24,000 (90,000 psi (54,000 psi
psi in bolts) in bolts) in bolts)
FINE THREAD SERIES
8-36 12-15 7-9 20 12
10-32 20-25 12-15 40 25
1/4-28 50-70 30-40 100 60
5/16-24 100-140 60-85 225 140
3/8-24 160-190 95-110 390 240
7/16-20 450-500 270-300 840 500
1/2-20 480-690 290-410 1,100 660
9/16-18 800-1000 480-600 1,600 960
5/8-18 1,100-1,300 600-780 2,400 1,400
3/4-16 2,300-2,500 1,300-1,500 5,000 3,000
7/8-14 2,500-3,000 1,500-1,800 7,000 4,200
1-14 3,700-5,500 2,200-3,300* 10,000 6,000
11/8-12 5,000-7,000 3,000-4,200* 15,000 9,000
11/4-12 9,000-11,000 5,400-6,600* 25,000 15,000
COARSE THREAD SERIES
8-32 12-15 7-9 20 12
10-24 20-25 12-15 35 21
1/4-20 40-50 25-30 75 45
5/16-18 80-90 48-55 160 100
3/8-16 160-185 95-100 275 170
7/16-14 235-255 140-155 475 280
1/2-13 400-480 240-290 880 520
9/16-12 500-700 300-420 1,100 650
5/8-11 700-900 420-540 1,500 900
3/4-10 1,150-1600 700-950 2,500 1,500
7/8-9 2,200-3000 1,300-1,800 4,600 2,700
The above torque values may be used for all cadmium-plated steel nuts of the fine or coarse
thread series, which have approximately equal number of threads and equal face bearing areas.
*Estimated corresponding values.
 TORQUING COMPUTATION

When using a drive-end extension, you must compute the torque wrench reading using the formula in
Figure 6-44:

T La
S
La E a

Figure 6-44 — Drive-end extension formula.

Where:
T La
S = handle setting or reading S
La E a
T = torque applied at end of 10012
S
126
adapter La = length of handle in
1200
S
inches
18
Ea = length of extension in inches
Figure 6-45 — Sample calculation.
To exert 100 inch-pounds at the end of the wrench and
extension, when La equals 12 inches and Ea equals 6
inches, it is possible to determine the handle setting by
making the calculation shown in Figure 6-45.

Whenever possible, attach the extension in line with the torque wrench. When it is necessary to attach the
extension at an angle to the torque wrench, the effective length of the assembly will be La+ Ea, as shown in
Figure 6-43. In this instance, length Eb must be substituted for length Ea in the formula.

AIRCRAFT SAFETYING METHODS

There are many different types of safetying materials

used to stop rotation and other movement of
fasteners. They are used to secure other equipment
that may come loose due to vibration in the aircraft.
COTTER PINS

Cotter pins are used to secure bolts, screws, nuts, and

pins. Some cotter pins are made of low-carbon steel,
while others consist of stainless steel and are more
resistant to corrosion. Also, stainless steel cotter pins
may be used in locations where nonmagnetic material
is required. Regardless of shape or material, all cotter
p1ns are used Tor tne same general
 NOTE

Whenever uneven prong cotter pins are used, the

length measurement is to the end of the shortest

SAFETY WIRE

Safety wire comes in many types and sizes. First, the correct type and size of wire for the job must be
selected. Annealed corrosion- resistant wire is used in high-temperature, electrical equipment and aircraft
instrument applications. All nuts—except the self-locking types—must be safetied; the method used
depends upon the particular installation.
Figure 6-47 shows various methodscommonly used to safety wire nuts, bolts, andscrews.
Examples 1, 2, and 5 in Figure 6-47 show the proper method of safety wiring bolts, screws, square head
plugs, and similar parts when wired in pairs. Examples 6 and 7 show a single-threaded component wired to a
housing or lug. Example 3 shows several components wired in series. Example 4 shows the proper method
of wiring castellated nuts and studs.

TURNBUCKLE SAFETYING

When adjustments and rigging on the cables are completed, the turnbuckles should be safetied as
necessary. Only two methods of safetying turnbuckles have been adopted as standard procedures by
the armed services: the clip-locking method (preferred) and the wire-wrapping method (Figure 6-48).
Lock clips must be examined after assembly for proper engagement of the hook lip in the turnbuckle
barrel hole by the application of slight pressure in the disengaging direction. Lock clips must not be
reused, as removal of the clips from the installed position will severely damage them.
Clip-Locking Turnbuckles
The clip-locking method of safetying uses a
NAS lock clip. To safety the turnbuckle, the slot
in the barrel must be aligned with the slot in
the cable terminal by holding the lock clip
between the thumb and forefinger at the end
loop. The straight end of the clip should be
inserted into the aperture formed by the
aligned slots by bringing the hook end of the
lock clip over the hole in the center of the
turnbuckle barrel and seating the hook loop
into the hole. Application of pressure to the
hook shoulder at the hole will engage the hook
lip in the turnbuckle barrel and complete the
safety locking of one end. The above steps are
then repeated on the opposite end of the
turnbuckle barrel. Both locking clips may be
inserted in the same turnbuckle barrel hole, or
they may be inserted in oppositeholes.

Wire-Wrapping Turnbuckles

First, two safety wires are passed through the

hole in the center of the turnbucklebarrel. The
ends of the wires are bent 90 degrees toward
the ends of the turnbuckle, as shown in
Figure6-48.
Next, the ends of the wires are passed
through the holes in the turnbuckle eye or
between the jaws of the turnbuckle fork, as
applicable. The wires are then bent toward
the center of the turnbuckle, and each one
wrapped four times around the shank. This
secures the wires in place.
When a swaged turnbuckle terminal is being
safetied, one wire must be passed through the
hole provided for this purpose in the terminal.
Figure 6-48 — Safetying turnbuckles: (A) Clip-
It is then looped over the free end of the other
locking method (preferred); (B) wire-wrapping
wire, and both ends wrapped around the
method.
shank.
 UNIT-3

DESIGN OF WINGAND TAIL STRUCTURES

 1 Engineering for purpose

1.1 Safe design

The concepts and theories that underpin the field of engineering is known as Structural integrity – that is,
the safe design and assessment of load-bearing structures in their entirety, including any individual
components from which they may have been constructed. Aspects of structural integrity are implemented
in almost every engineering design process, even if the engineer or designer does not necessarily think of it
in that way. In this unit, we have separated the skills and knowledge associated with expertise in
structural integrity under two headings: Stress analysis, which is the study of how applied forces lead to
internal stresses in structures; and Fracture mechanics, which is the study of components and structures
containing cracks.

1.2 Component failure

We have all experienced component failures in one form or another. In many cases this is because
something has reached the end of its working life due to a slow-acting failure mechanism: car tyres wear
slowly and will eventually burst if not replaced; the filament in a light bulb slowly loses material until it
cannot sustain the applied voltage and melts. Failures where something has been so badly designed that it
cannot withstand its intended loading during normal use are rarer, but they do occur nonetheless. Take
a look at Figure 1, which shows the broken handle of a decorative cake knife, the sort that gets used
only on ‘special’ occasions. In fact, this example of failure was caused by poor design. Note that a metal
‘tang’ extends from the blade into the handle as a means of reinforcement. In this case the tang was simply
too short to strengthen the ceramic handle sufficiently against the bending loads that arose during cutting.
The failure occurred while the knife was being used at a wedding reception and resulted in blood-soaked
icing.

1.3 Environmental factors

As indicated earlier that many failures occur after a product has been in service for some time: such as the
wear of a car tyre, or corrosion of the car body itself. It is also possible for components to fail
because of a combination of a manufacturing defect with the applied loading or with the environmental
conditions during use. Figure 6 illustrates the link from mechanisms such as corrosion, fatigue (repeated
loading) and creep (continuous deformation under load) to failure in some form.

So in addition to knowing the stresses in a material arising from the applied loading, depending on the
environment in which the component is used it may be necessary to consider the effects of corrosion, wear,
creep and fatigue. The effects of any of these mechanisms can weaken a structure to the point
where it can no longer bear the loads for which it was originally designed, as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6 Routes to failure from different mechanisms

Day one, in order to avoid potential pitfalls in your aircraft design and certification process. Loads
are needed at nearly all stages of a design program. Early in preliminary design, the structural
designers need initial loads to size preliminary structure. As the design iterations progress, the
detail and fidelity of the loads increases. The final step for an aircraft is a full set of certification
loads for submission to the FAA and EASA. The work of the loads group drives
the stress and structural design groups; organizations that are often much larger than the loads
group. As a result of this, changes to loads inputs after a substantial portion of detailed design is
complete can necessitate a significant amount of rework. Let TLG work with your
organization through the early stages of the design process in order to minimize the potential for
expensive surprises in the design and certification of your project.
AIRCRAFT LOADS AFFECT MANY ENGINEERS IN THE DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING PROCESS

WHAT ARE AIRCRAFT LOADS?

Aircraft loads are those forces and moments, or loadings, applied to the airplane structural
components (the wing, horizontal tail and the fuselage, for instance) to establish the required
strength level of the complete airplane. These loadings may be caused by air pressure (lift), inertia
(mass, weight) forces or ground reactions during take offs and landings. The determination of
design loads involves a full aircraft analysis of the air pressure and inertia forces during certain
prescribed maneuvers, either in the air or on the ground. TLG is capable of determining these loads
for all kinds of aircraft in all manner of flight conditions.

WHAT INFORMATION IS NECESSARY TO CALCULATE LOADS?

One of the challenges in calculating loads is that the full aircraft must be accurately modeled. The
primary basic data to the loads analysis are accurate airplane geometry, aerodynamic data,

weight (inertia) data, design speeds, stiffness data, miscellaneous systems data, operational
data and regulations and requirements. This makes loads a multidisciplinary process. Early in a
design program, these parameters can be estimated from various methods, but when using
estimations, the engineer will err on being conservative, so the loads will be higher than
certification level loads. As the design becomes more detailed and defined, the loads will become
more concise to the final certification level.

HOW DO YOU CHOOSE THE FLIGHT CONDITIONS FOR LOADS?

 The overall guidance on loads is the CFR 14 Part 23 and 25 regulations. These require the
aircraft to be structurally sound for a specific set of flight conditions. The loads analysis needs to
cover all possible combinations of speed, altitude, flap angle, airplane gross weight, airplane center
of gravity, passenger and payload distribution, fuel quantities, engine thrust and airbrake
positions for each of the required maneuver and load cases for each part of the airplane. An
example of a load condition is for the pilot to suddenly roll the airplane while flying at 20,000 feet
altitude, a speed of 300 knots, full engine thrust, airbrakes retracted, flaps and slats retracted, five
passengers sitting in the forward most seats, half full wing fuel tanks and maximum allowed
cargo. Adding up all of the possible combinations, there are thousands of unique load cases.

WHAT DIFFERS BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC LOADS?

Static loads are calculated for conditions in which the aircraft is assumed to be at steady state and
range from high speed dives to low speed stalls. The dynamic loads are how the airplane responds
to gusts and bumps, including landing. Dynamic loads are more prominent on large, flexible
airplanes because of the structural response. For example, the gust may simply accelerate the
aircraft up briefly, but the frequency of the gust will cause the wing to bend in a certain mode
shape, and the resulting vibration then induces more loads on other parts of the structure due to
both aerodynamic and inertial forces.

HOW MANY LOADS CASES NEED TO BE RUN?

For an aircraft, the combination of static and dynamic loads, with the range of the flight envelope,
all payload loading conditions and flight maneuvers results in hundreds-of-thousands of load
conditions. TLG has developed an extensive set of tools to facilitate quickly setting up and
running thousands and thousands of static and dynamic loads cases and then quickly post-
processing to obtain the most critical load cases to provide loads envelopes to the stress and
structural engineers. TLG utilizes in-house loads programs and [Link] for loads
determination.

Loads acting on a Wing

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A wing is primarily designed to counteract the weight force produced by the aircraft as a
consequence of its mass (the first post in this series deals with the fundamental forces acting on
the aircraft). Thus during straight and level flight, the wing provides an upward lifting force
equal to the weight of the aircraft plus the trim force generated at the horizontal tail to keep
the aircraft balanced. The downward trim force comes about as a result of the need to balance
the moment generated by the lift vector acting away from the center of gravity of the vehicle.
In the conceptual design phase it is common to account for the additional force generated at
the tail by multiplying the aircraft weight by a factor of 1.05 (5%) to account for the trim force;
alternatively one can estimate the required force based on the estimated design weight of the
aircraft and the approximate moment arm between the estimated location of the c.g. and the
estimated location of the tail.

Lift is equal to weight plus horizontal tail trim force at 1g

Load Factor

An aircraft does not just fly straight and level during all phases of operation. If the pilot banks
the aircraft at a 60 degree angle during a sharp turn, he needs to produce twice the lifting force
to counteract the weight due to the angle of the lift vector relative to the weight (which always
acts downward). In this instance, the wing is producing a lift force equal to twice the weight of
the aircraft and the aircraft is said to be pulling 2g’s (twice the gravitational force) or operating
at a load factor of 2.

A 60 degree bank angle results in a 2g turn

The example above illustrates that there are many cases where the aircraft will exceed a
loading of 1g. The Federal Aviation Administration (among other regulatory bodies) is
responsible for ensuring that all certified aircraft comply to a basic standard of safety.
Therefore a series of regulations are published, which among other regulations, detail the
minimum load factor that a particular aircraft class should be designed to withstand.

The following extract comes from FAR 23.337:

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Extract from FAR 23.337 describing the Limit Load Factor[/caption] -->

Extract from FAR 23.337 describing the Limit Load Factor

The minimum design limit load factor is a function of the classification of the aircraft that is
being designed. For example, it follows that an aerobatic aircraft will require a higher limit load
factor than a commuter aircraft due to the difference in the severity of the maneuvers the two
are expected to perform.

The extract shown above pertains to an aircraft that is to be FAR Part 23 certified which is the
airworthiness standard for Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter type aircraft. Airliners and
larger commercial aircraft do not fall into the FAR 23 category and so are certified in
accordance with FAR Part 25 which is the airworthiness standard for Transport Category
Aircraft.

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Further to specifying the maximum maneuvering load factor, the aircraft must also be designed
to withstand a gust loading during level flight. Gust loading is outside of the scope of this
tutorial but the reader is referred to FAR 23.341 for further information.

Limit and Ultimate Loading

The maximum maneuvering load factor specified for an aircraft design is known as the aircraft
limit load.

A limit load is defined as the maximum expected load that the aircraft will see during normal
operation.

It is not sufficient to design an aircraft’s structure to be able to withstand a limit load as this
leaves no margin of safety in the design. Limit loads are therefore multiplied by a factor of
safety to arrive at a set of Ultimate Loads which provide for a safety margin in the design and
manufacturing of the aircraft. The standard factor of safety for aircraft design is 1.5.

The ultimate load factor is therefore equal to 1.5 times the limit load specified in the FAR
regulation.

FAR regulations stipulate that an aircraft must be able to withstand limit loads with neither any
permanent deformation of the structure nor any detriment to safe operation of the aircraft.

Ultimate loads can result in plastic deformation of the structure but must be held for three
seconds without failure.

Shear and Bending on a Wing

A wing is designed not only to produce a lifting force equal to the weight of the aircraft, but
must produce sufficient lift equal to the maximum weight of the aircraft multiplied by the
Ultimate Load Factor. So an aircraft that weighs 12 000 lbs and is designed to an ultimate load
factor of 4.5 must thus be able to produce 54 000 lbs of lift up to a speed governed by the FAR
regulations (dive speed). There will be a minimum speed below which the wing is incapable of
producing the full 54 000 lbs of lift and this is governed by the maximum lift coefficient of the
wing and resulting stall speed. In reality a V-n diagram is constructed which graphically
illustrates the flight envelope of the aircraft. We wont’ discuss the V-n diagram in this
introductory post.

Once the maximum lifting force that wing is expected to produce has been established, the
distribution of that lifting force over the span of the wing is estimated. The lift distribution over
a conventional wing is parabolic in nature, rising from the tip and reaching a maximum at the
root.

Lift Distribution and Bending Moment acting on a wing

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This resulting vertical force distribution over the span of the wing causes the wing to flex and
bend upward when it is loaded. If you look out of the window and at the wing of a modern
airliner like the Boeing 787 during takeoff and landing you are sure to see a high degree of
flexing. The lift produced by the wing results in a large bending moment at the wing root that
must be transferred to the wingbox (the structure that connects the wing to the fuselage).

There are therefore two primary types of loading that the wing structure must be designed to
withstand. A vertical shear force due to the lift generated.A bending moment arising from the
lift distribution.

The wing is also subjected to torsional loads arising from the pitching moment formed by the
offset between the centre of pressure and the attachment points of the wing, and horizontal
(in-plane) shear forces as a result of the drag force acting on the wing. This introduction will
concentrate on the vertical shear and bending moment as these loads drive the wing design.

An example of the distributed lift load and resulting shear and bending moment diagrams
arising from this loading is shown below. In both cases it is clear that the location of the highest
shear and bending is the wing root.

Lift distribution, Shear diagram and Bending Moment Diagram of a typical wing

Wing Structural Components

The primary objective of the wing’s internal structure is to withstand the shear and bending
moments acting on the wing at the Ultimate load factor. The secondary objective is to make the
wing as light as possible without compromising the structural integrity of the design as
described above.

An optimized wing design will fail just as the ultimate loading conditions are reached.

There is no need to make the wing any stronger than it needs to be, and any excess strength
(wing weight due to extra material) will reduce the payload capacity of the aircraft making it
uncompetitive or uneconomic to operate. In reality the wing will be analysed using
computational methods for many different loading combinations that exist at the edge of the
aircraft design envelope and then subjected to a static test at the ultimate load factor to show
that failure will not occur below the ultimate load.

An aircraft wing is usually designed with a semi-monocoque approach where all the
components making up the wing structure are load bearing. A typical semi-monocoque wing
structure is shown below with the various components labelled:

Typical structural arrangement of a semi-monocoque wing showing the various components

labelled

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Spar Cap (flange):

These consist of the upper and lower flanges attached to the spar webs. The spar caps carry the
bending moment generated by the wing in flight. The upper spar cap will be loaded in
compression and the lower in tension for a positive load factor (wing bending upward). The
spar caps also form a boundary onto which wing skin is attached and support the wing skin
against buckling. Concentrated load points such as engine mounts or landing gear are attached
to the main spar.

Spar web:

The spar web consists of the material between the spar caps and maintains a fixed spacing
between the them. This allows the spar caps to act in pure tension and compression (bending)
during flight. The spar web is responsible for carrying the vertical shear loads (lift) which arises
from the aerodynamic loading of the wing. The spar webs and caps are collectively referred to
as the wing spar.

Wing Ribs:

The ribs are spaced equidistant from one-another (as far as is practical) and help to maintain
the aerodynamic profile of the wing. The ribs form part of the boundary onto which the skins
are attached, and support the skins and stiffeners against buckling. Ribs also form a convenient
structure onto which to introduce concentrated loads

Stringers/Stiffeners:

Stiffeners or stringers form a part of the boundary onto which the wing skin is attached and
support the skin against buckling under load. The stiffeners also carry axial loads arising from
bending moments in the wing.

Skin:

The wing skin transmits in-plane shear loads into the surrounding structure and gives the wing
its aerodynamic shape.

Analysis Methods

What follows is a brief introduction into some methodologies and analyses typically carried out
during the design of a new wing structure. We will not go so far as to look into the specifics of
the mathematics used, but will discuss the preliminary structural layout of the wing and look at
two analysis methods that drives the structural design: a shear flow analysis and a collapse
moment analysis.

Preliminary Structural Layout

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Before the structural layout of the wing is designed, a preliminary sizing of the wing planform
should have been completed to size the wing for its required mission. If you have been
following along from the start of this series then you’ll be familiar with sizing a wing with
respect to plan area and aspect ratio, sweep and supersonic flight, and selecting a suitable
airfoil profile in order to complete the planform design of the wing.

Once the planform is frozen, a preliminary structural layout should be drawn up using the
following rules of thumb:

Generally the main spar is located at or near the 25 % chord location. The aerodynamic center
of the wing exists at approximately quarter chord which is the location on the wing where the
moment coefficient is independent of angle of attack. It is good design practise to locate the
main spar near the aerodynamic centre.

A rear spar is often required in order to attach the trailing edge flap and aileron surfaces to the
main wing structure. If the surfaces have already been specified during the conceptual phase
(before the structural design is started) then these surfaces will form a natural constraint and
drive the placement of the rear spar.

Ribs will need to be placed at any points in the wing where concentrated loads are introduced.
Common examples such as engine pylons, landing gear, and flap and aileron junctions should
guide the placement of the first few ribs.

Additional ribs should be placed equidistant along the span of the wing such that the aspect
ratio between the ribs and the skin remains close to one. This aids in unloading the shear in the
skin and reduces the tendency for the skins to buckle.

Stringers can be added between the spars. This will aid the skin in resisting shear buckling.

Example of a preliminary structural layout for a rectangular untapered wing

Structural Idealization

In order to efficiently analyse the wing structure, a number of simplifying assumptions are
typically made when working with a semi-monocoque structure.

The spar caps/flanges and stiffeners only carry axial (bending) [Link] skins and spar web
only carry shear loads.

This is the classical approach to aircraft structural design and will result in an efficient structure
that has been sized with conventional methods which are well accepted by the certification
authorities. However, improvements in computing power along with the rise of composite
materials in structural design means that there is a gradual movement away from the classical
methods to analyzing the structure in such a way that seeks to further optimize the design to

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produce the lightest possible structure. We’ll just focus on the classical methods for the sake of
this tutorial.

Shear Flow Analysis

Examining the mathematics behind a shear flow analysis is outside of the scope of this
introductory tutorial; rather the methodology and rationale will be discussed.

A shear flow analysis is used to size the thickness of the wing skin and shear webs. A shear force
diagram is determined at the maximum load factor which then serves to specify the variation in
shear force along the span of the wing. The variation in shear force along the span forms the
input into the calculation as the shear at each spanwise location must be transferred into the
wing structure.

Based on the assumption that the skin and web only transmits shear and no axial load, the
shear stress within a skin panel will remain constant where ever the thickness of the skin is
constant.

The product of the shear stress and the thickness is therefore constant along a skin and is
termed shear flow.

q=τ×tq=τ×t

A panel section of the wing can therefore be modelled as a set of skins where thickness is a
variable, and once the shear flows acting on each of the skins are known, the thickness of the
skins can be varied until the shear stress in each skin is below the material allowable shear
stress. In this way, the wing skins and web will not fail as a result of the shear loading induced
when the aircraft operates at the edge of the design envelope. The final skin shear flows are
also a function of the spar cap area, and this can also be varied to manipulate the final shear
[Link] flow analysis on a simple box beam wing structure

Collapse Moment AnalysisAs with the shear flow analysis, the mathematics behind this
calculation are complex and outside of the scope of this tutorial. Instead we briefly introduce
the rationale behind a collapse moment analysis.

As described above, a shear flow analysis is used to size all the shear components of the wing
structure (webs and skins). We now examine the bending components of the design; namely
the spar cap areas and the propensity of the skins on the upper surface of the wing to buckle
under compression at high load factors.

The spar caps are responsible for transferring the bending moment generated by the wing into
the surrounding structure. When the wing is subjected to a positive load factor it will tend to
deflect upward and load the upper spar caps and skin in compression, and the lower structure
in tension.

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Wing in bending (positive load factor) loads the upper skins in compression and lower skins in
tension

A collapse moment analysis examines the interaction between the wing skin in compression
(which will tend to buckle) and the ability of the spar caps to absorb the extra load transferred
if the skins do buckle. Buckling of the skin does not necessarily result in failure of the whole
wing structure as the buckled skin will transfer load into the spar caps and stiffeners that
border the skin. This transfer is accomplished through shear flow.

The wing will fail when the stress in the stiffeners or spar caps reach their maximum crippling
(failing) stress. The problem becomes an iterative one as the stress at which the skin first starts
to buckle must be determined, which in turn affects how much additional load is transferred
into the spar caps.

The critical bending moment at which the spar cap/stiffener will reach its critical stress and fail
is a function of the cross-sectional area of the stiffener and also the distance that the stiffener
lies from the neutral axis. The position of the neutral axis is in turn a function of the extent to
which the skins have buckled on the application of the maximum load.

The moment at which the structure will collapse is determined once the crippling stress (critical
stress in spar cap) and the moment of inertia (function of extent to which skins have buckled) is
known.

This collapse moment is then compared to the bending moment diagram generated for the
wing to ensure that the bending moment applied is lower than the collapse moment at all
spanwise locations of the wing.

The wing will not fail in bending if the collapse moment is greater than the bending moment at
all spanwise locations
Since the bending moment is a maximum at the root of the wing, the spar caps will need to be
large enough (sufficient area) so as not to fail in bending. Using a constant sparcap area from
root to tip would result in a situation where the applied bending moment is very much smaller
than the collapse moment as one moves toward the tip. This would result in an inefficient
structure which is overly heavy. One way to mitigate this is to taper the spar cap area as one
moves toward the wing tip in such a manner that weight is reduced but the collapse moment is
always greater than the applied moment at all points along the wing. An example of a structural
layout where a tapered main spar flange is used

Wrapping Up

Completing the full structural design of a new wing is a complex and iterative process. The
analysis described above just represents a small part of the design and stress analysis process. A
wing structure would be modeled using a Finite Element (FE) package and tested for many

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different load combinations before a prototype is built and tested to the point of
destruction as a means to validate the paper calculations and computer analysis.
However, starting with some hand calculations, similar to those shown above is a good
way to begin the design process as it ensures that the engineer understands the
resulting load paths before creating an FE model.

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 UNIT IV
DESIGN OF FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR

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 DESIGN OF FUSELAGE AND LANDING GEAR

The main body section of an aircraft is called a fuselage. This forms the
central body of the aircraft onto which wings, control surfaces and
sometimes engines are connected. The fuselage houses the crew, any
passengers, cargo, an array of aircraft systems and sometimes fuel.

A well designed fuselage will ensure that the following are met:

 The intended payload is adequately and efficiently housed.

 The fuselage is sized such that the various control and stabilization
surfaces (typically the vertical and horizontal tail) are located such that
the aircraft is stable in flight.
 Loading the aircraft with goods, fuel and passengers does not
negatively impact on the stability of the aircraft for a range of payload
configurations (center of gravity is adequately located).
 The fuselage structure will not fail due to excessive loading throughout
the entire aircraft flight envelope.
 The mass of the fuselage is optimized to ensure safe operation without
carrying any additional or excess weight.
 The aerodynamic shape of the fuselage is such that the minimum drag
is produced during typical operation while still ensuring that the design
payload is adequately housed.
 The fuselage design is versatile enough to offer the potential to stretch
the aircraft if a number of aircraft configurations are desired.

Let’s start by examining three popular design methodologies for the

structural design of a fuselage.

Structural Design Principles

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Throughout the years a number of design principles have been adopted
regarding the structural layout of a fuselage. Three common design
methodologies are described below in chronological order leading up to
the semi-monocoque design that is most prevalent today.

Space Frame (Truss)

The earliest aircraft fuselages were built with a space frame or truss like
construction. Often wood was used as the primary structural material with
a fabric covering providing the aerodynamic shape. In this fuselage
configuration the force members of the truss provide the structural
stiffness, and the aerodynamic covering provides the shape, but does
not add much to the overall stiffness of the structure.

A space frame is a simple albeit inefficient way of building a fuselage

structure as the fabric skins add weight without contributing to the rigidity
of the structure. One popular aircraft designed with a space frame fuselage
is the iconic PA-18 Piper Super Cub which is pictured below.

Monocoque

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By the end of the First World War limitations in the the use of wooden
truss configurations were being identified. As the flight speed and wing
loading of newer designs increased, the variation of the structural
properties of the wood and its susceptibility to environmental degradation
meant that wooden structures were no longer an efficient means of
production. New methods were sought and steel was investigated as a
replacement for wood. Steel is stiff and strong (both prerequisites in the
design of an efficient structure) but its high density makes it very heavy
(density of wood approximately 500 – 800 kg/m3kg/m3 vs steel
7800 kg/m3kg/m3). To efficiently design with steel, engineers had to make
use of very thin sections which were intricately curved and shaped to
prevent buckling of the thin structure. The term monocoque structure
refers to a structural arrangement where the skins take all of the
loading and contribute to all of the structural rigidity of the
design. One major downfall when designing a pure monocoque structure is
the difficulty of incorporating concentrated loads into the structure such as
engine mountings or the wing-fuselage interface. The distribution of these
point loads into the skin structure becomes very difficult to efficiently
achieve. Interestingly, in recent times the introduction of composites as a
material from which to build aircraft structures has seen a move back
towards designing a pure monocoque structure, although typically a hybrid
design of a metallic substructure with composite skin panels is typically
used on larger composite aircraft.

Semi-Monocoque

Somewhere between the space frame arrangement (skin takes no load) and
pure monocoque arrangement (skin takes all the load) lies the semi-
monocoque design which is the most common method of constructing
aircraft structure today. In a semi-monocoque structure both the skin
and set of frames are load carrying and contribute to the overall
stiffness of the structure. This design methodology was born out of the
use of aluminium rather than steel as the primary structural material used
in the design of aircraft structures. Aluminium has many advantages over

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steel, principally its density is approximately one-third that of steel. For a
constant structural mass, the aluminium sections can be thicker which
reduces the susceptibility of those skins to buckling, which in turn
produces a more efficient structure.

A semi-monocoque fuselage therefore typically consists of the following

structural components:

 Frames – these transverse elements are built in the shape of the

fuselage cross-section and are typically spaced approximately 20
inches or 50 cm apart.
 Stiffeners/stringers – the frames are joined to one-another by
longitudinal stiffeners or stringers.
 Skins – the skin is load-bearing and gives the fuselage its form and
shape. The skin is attached to the sub-structure on an aluminium
aircraft by riveting it to the frames and stringers.

Semi-monocoque structures are the predominant way in which aircraft are

designed and so the rest of this tutorial will focus on the application of
semi-monocoque structures.

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Fuselage Loading
A fuselage structure is loaded in a number of ways. These include:

 Aerodynamic loads as a result of the aircraft maneuvering through the

air.
 The distribution of the mass of the fuselage induces bending
 Inertial loads created by point masses connected to the fuselage
(engines attached to fuselage by a pylon is an example).
 Concentrated point loads: for example the interface between the
fuselage and the tail.
 Internal pressurization loads (if the aircraft is pressurized).
 Shock loading: for example the nose landing gear impacting the
runway on landing.

The loading experienced by the fuselage is likely a combination of each of

these at a given moment in time. How then do each of the structural

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elements present in a semi-monocoque fuselage structure work together to
distribute and transfer the resulting loading?

The frames work to support the skins and stiffeners against buckling while
retaining the aerodynamic shape of the fuselage. Frames are also used
wherever concentrated loads are introduced into the structure, for example
at the wing-to-fuselage interface, and the tail-to-fuselage interface. Finally,
frames are also used in conjunction with the skin to resist the internal
pressure formed when an aircraft is pressurised.

Stiffeners and stringers are responsible for transmitting the axial loading
(both tension and compression) that arise out of the bending moments
induced through the fuselage structure. A good example would be the
bending moment generated through the fuselage when applying a rudder
input during flight. The stiffeners also assist in preventing the fuselage
skin from buckling.

Finally the skins transmit shear loads and work to introduce load into the
stiffeners. The skins also resist the internal pressure which is present in a
pressurized aircraft.

To summarize:

Axial loads are carried by the longitudinal stiffeners and stringers

Shear loads are carried by the skin
The basic methodology behind the structural design of a fuselage is to
ensure that the skin/stiffener combination does not buckle between
transverse frames. Therefore the frames must be stiff enough that they do
not buckle globally, and the skin and stiffeners, which form a series of
segments on the fuselage, must not buckle locally. An optimized fuselage
design results when these conditions are met for the lightest possible
structure.

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Fuselage Sizing
Let’s move on from the various structural elements that are required to
design a fuselage onto how you determine the size and shape of the
fuselage required for your aircraft design.

A good starting point is to thoroughly understand the requirements of the

aircraft that you are designing; here are some questions you should ask
yourself:

 What does my payload look like? Am I designing a passenger aircraft,

carrying cargo or munitions?
 How is my aircraft powered? Do I need to include space in the
fuselage for an engine or will the engines sit externally on the wing or
towards the rear of the fuselage?
 What does a typical mission for my aircraft look like? Am I more
interested in achieving a high cruise speed at the expense of payload or
is the size and extent of the payload the driving requirement?
 Is the aircraft to be pressurized or unpressurized? Pressurized aircraft
generally have cylindrical fuselage cross-sections as this is the most
efficient shape to resist the internal pressure.

Once you are clear which factors will drive the fuselage design you can
start to sketch a preliminary outline of your fuselage. It is useful to start by
first placing all the components that you know your fuselage will need to
house e.g. engines, passengers, cargo etc, and then shaping the fuselage
around these. Generally it is good to start by creating a number of cross-
sections of your proposed fuselage over the critical components and then
begin to join them up to form your preliminary design. Of course it is also
very important to consider the location of the center of gravity of your
fuselage and internal components, as the location of the aircraft C.G
relative to the center of lift of the wing is a critical stability criterion.

The placement of the wing and tail surfaces will also drive the total length
of the fuselage both from a stability and a controllability standpoint. A

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longer fuselage means that the tail surfaces can be made smaller since the
moment arm between the aircraft C.G and the aerodynamic center of the
horizontal and vertical tail surfaces is increased, which increases the
effectiveness of the control surfaces. This is very nicely illustrated when
comparing the size of the vertical tail on the shorter Boeing 747SP to that
of the 747-400.

Typically the fuselage contributes somewhere between 20 and 35 % of the

total drag produced by the aircraft at cruise and this is a function of three
key variables:

 The maximum cross-sectional area of the fuselage.

 The fuselage slenderness ratio (ratio of length-to-diameter).

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  The total wetted area of the fuselage.

The effect that these variables have on the total profile drag of the fuselage
is shown in the plots generated below:

An increase in fuselage diameter from 4 m to 5 m produces an increase in

fuselage profile drag of 60 %. This illustrates just how important it is to
size your fuselage in order to fit your intended payload but not make it
unnecessarily larger.

The length of your fuselage should be sized according to the maximum

cross-sectional area. A slenderness ratio (length-to-diameter) of between 5
and 6 produces the minimum drag case.

The location of doors and windows on the fuselage is another important

consideration that must be carefully studied. The locations of the windows
for example will affect the locations of the transverse frames through the
fuselage. Anybody who has flown on a commercial airliner would argue
that the locations of the windows are driven by the placement of the frames
and not the other way around! The type, size, and minimum number of
doors and emergency exits placed on the fuselage is specified by the
regulations published by the Federal Aviation Authority. This is driven by

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the need to quickly and efficiently evacuate passengers in the event of an
emergency. Doors and windows form cut-outs on the fuselage structure
which requires additional reinforcement of the structure around these
openings. This is turn results in a heavier structure and so the size and
number of cut-outs should be kept to a minimum.

One additional but important consideration is the design of the cockpit.

Pilot visibility is a major consideration (at least while commercial aircraft
remain piloted) and the cockpit must be sized in order to allow the pilots to
safely operate the aircraft at all times during flight. The approach and
landing phase of the flight are the most critical from a pilot visibility
perspective. During landing the pilot will pitch the aircraft nose up to
increase the angle of attack of the wing in order to fly at a slower speed.
Visibility of the runway at this attitude is an important factor that must be
considered. Delta winged aircraft like the Concorde land at very high
angles of attack, which is why the Concorde nose rotates downward during
landing to allow the pilots to see the runway over the aircraft’s nose.

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Introduction
Another aircraft major component that is needed to be designed is landing gear (undercarriage). The landing
gear is the structure that supports an aircraft on the ground and allows it to taxi, take-off, and land. In fact,
landing gear design tends to have several interferences with the aircraft structural design. In this book, the
structural design aspects of landing gear are not addressed; but, those design parameters which strongly
impact the aircraft configuration design and aircraft aerodynamics will be discussed. In addition, some
aspects of landing gear such as shock absorber, retraction mechanism and brakes are assumed as non-
aeronautical issues and may be determined by a mechanical engineer. Thus, those pure mechanical
parameters will not be considered in this chapter either. In general, the followings are the landing gear
parameters which are to be determined in this chapter:
1. Type (e.g. nose gear (tricycle), tail gear, bicycle)
2. Fixed (faired, or un-faired), or retractable, partially retractable
3. Height
4. Wheel base
5. Wheel track
6. The distance between main gear and aircraft cg
7. Strut diameter
8. Tire sizing (diameter, width)
9. Landing gear compartment if retracted
10. Load on each strut

Landing gear usually includes wheels, but some aircraft are equipped with skis for snow or float for water. In
the case of a vertical take-off and landing aircraft such as a helicopter, wheels may be replaced with skids.
Figure 9.1 illustrates landing gear primary parameters. The descriptions of primary parameters are as follows.
Landing gear height is the distance between the lowest point of the landing gear (i.e. bottom of the tire) and
the attachment point to the aircraft. Since, landing gear may be attached to the fuselage or to the wing; the
term height has different meaning. Furthermore, the landing gear height is a function of shock absorber and
the landing gear deflection. The height is usually measured when the aircraft is on the ground; it has
maximum take-off weight; and landing gear has the maximum deflection (i.e. lowest height).
Thus, the landing gear when it has the maximum extension is still height, but is less important and
application. The distance between the lowest point of the landing gear (i.e. ground) to the aircraft cg
is also of significant importance and will be employed during calculations. Wheel base is the distance
between main gear and other gear (from side view). The landing gear is divided into two sections: 1. Main
gear or main wheel1, 2. Secondary gear or secondary wheel. Main gear is the gear which is the closest to
the aircraft center of gravity (cg). During the landing operation, the main wheel touches first with the
point of contact to the ground. Furthermore, during the take-off operation, the main wheel leaves the
ground last. On the other hand, main gear is carrying great portion of the aircraft load on the ground.

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In order to allow for a landing gear to function effectively, the following design requirements are established:
1. Ground clearance requirement
2. Steering requirement
3. Take-off rotation requirement
4. Tip back prevention requirement
5. Overturn prevention requirement
6. Touch-down requirement
7. Landing requirement
8. Static and dynamic load requirement

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 UNIT V
FATIGUE LIFE, DAMAGE TOLERANCE, FAIL SAFE- SAFE DESIGN-WEIGHT
CONTROL AND BALANCE
Fail-Safe and Safe-Life Designs

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FATIGUE LIFE, DAMAGE TOLERANCE, FAIL SAFE- SAFE DESIGN-WEIGHT CONTROL AND BALANCE
Fail-Safe and Safe-Life Designs

And Factor of Safety

Factors of Safety (a.k.a. Safety Factor)
The factor of safety is usually expressed as a ratio of the “load carrying capability” of the
structure to the expected loading. Loading may be static, impact, fatigue, wear, et cetera.
The purpose of using a safety factor is to assure that the design does not fail in the event
of unexpectedly high loads or the presence of material/design defects. Factors of safety
are applied to decrease the probability of failure, or in more positive terms, they increase
the probability of success. They are applied in part due to inherent ignorance present in
all designs. Ignorance stems from natural variability in materials and manufacturing
processes, maintenance, and what the design really experiences in its lifetime. Lower
factors of safety may be required if the following are true, larger ones are justified if
these are less true:
High quality and consistency of materials, manufacturing, maintenance and inspection
Good control or knowledge of the actual loads and environment
Highly reliable analysis and/or experimental data
The commercial airplane business has extremely rigorous control over airplane structures
and systems from fabrication and assembly through inspection and maintenance. The
environmental effects and maximum loads airplanes experience are also well understood.
Extensive fatigue and static testing is conducted on components and systems. Therefore,
relatively low factors of safety are applied (around 1.3) even though safety is at stake.
The degree of ignorance is not the only element that the engineer should use to determine
appropriate factors of safety. The potential harm that failure can produce is also
important. If failure would result in a mere inconvenience, then a small factor of safety
may be acceptable. If failure would be expensive or even life threatening, then a larger
factor of safety is justified.
How does an engineer determine an appropriate factor of safety? In some instances, such
as pressure vessels, minimum factors of safety are mandated by codes and standards.
But this is not often the case. Experience with similar designs is often the best method.
Typically, factors of safety range from a low of 1.3 to around 5.
Fail-Safe and Safe-Life Designs
Aerospace engineers, for designs involving fatigue loading, developed safe-life and failsafe
philosophies. The concept of fail-safe designs is extended here to include all designs
that mitigate the harm caused by failure.
What is meant by “Fail-Safe”?
Fail-safe designs are designs that incorporate various techniques to mitigate losses due to
system or component failures. The design assumption is that failure will eventually occur
but when it does the device, system or process will fail in a safe manner.
What is meant by “Safe-Life”?
Safe-life refers to the philosophy that the component or system is designed to not fail
within a certain, defined period. It is assumed that testing and analysis can provide an

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adequate estimate for the expected lifetime of the component or system. At the end of
this expected life, the part is removed from service.
When should either of these philosophies be employed?
The benefit of safe-life designs includes reducing the likelihood of unplanned
maintenance and reducing the likelihood of any failure. Benefits of fail-safe designs
include being able to manage the unexpected and mitigating damage if failure occurs.
There is no method to help determine which if either of these philosophies should be
employed. Engineers must use their judgment on a case-by-case basis. The decision to
use either of these philosophies is justified whenever the “cost” and likelihood of failure
outweighs the “cost” of implementing either fail-safe or safe-life designs.
“Cost” of failure may include:
Physical harm to people or the environment
Loss or destruction of property or equipment
Loss of productivity or use of the failed “system” or device
Damaged reputation
Likelihood of failure
The engineer should always consider how likely a certain failure will be. In so
doing, it is important to consider all potential loading conditions – even abusive
loads.
“Cost” of implementing can include:
Increased expense and time for design and testing
Increased production costs
Decrease in product performance
There are no formulas to help determine when fail-safe or safe-life designs should be
employed. Airplane designs employ both of these concepts, making air travel one of the
safest modes of transportation. Yet, it is not possible to make aircraft completely safe.
There are always conditions that are prohibitive to guard against.
Techniques for Safe-Life Design
Since it is imperative that the component or system not fail within the predicted life time,
extensive testing and analysis is required. Safe-life designs involve a testing and analysis
(typically fatigue analysis) to estimate how long the component can be in service before it
will likely fail. Since no amount of analysis and testing can assure how long a particular
part will perform without failure, a generous factor of safety should be included to
prevent catastrophic failure. The product should be designed so that it can be easily
inspected in service.
Techniques for Fail-Safe Design
Redundancies (avoid single point failures)
Back-up systems –If failure of a critical subsystem will cause severe losses, backup
systems are often employed. For example, commercial aircraft have a
minimum of two engines. They are designed such that fully loaded airplanes
can takeoff even if one engine fails.
Multiple load paths – if a structural element fails, the load it was carrying will be
transferred to other members. Obviously, it is essential that the fracture be
detected before multiple members fail.
Intentional “Weak Link”
An inexpensive and easy to replace component may be used to prevent damage to

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expensive or difficult to repair component. Fuses in electrical circuits are an
example of this for electrical systems. Shear pins are used on boat propellers are
a mechanical example. These are inexpensive and easy to replace pins that
transmit power from the shaft to the propeller. If the propeller strikes an object,
the shear pin is designed to fail before the propeller or shaft are damaged.
Physical Law
Designing a system in such a way that failure cannot be catastrophic based on
how failure will occur. For example, nature gas pipelines are produced from
sufficiently tough material so that it will fail in a ductile manner, rather than
brittle. Ductile fractures propagate at about 600 ft/sec. Brittle fractures propagate
at about 1500-2500 ft/sec. When a crack forms in a pipe, the gas will immediately
begin to decompress. The decompression wave will travel down the pipe at about
the speed of sound (1300 ft/sec). If the crack speed is faster than the
decompression speed, the crack front will always remain under high pressure and
the crack will grow indefinitely. Otherwise, the decompression wave will out run
the crack, and the crack will stop growing.
Early Detection
When a structure is designed such that cracks will easily be detected before they
reach critical length, it may be considered a fail-safe design. A critical element of
this is the detection of the crack before it reaches critical length. It is very
important that proper materials (high fracture toughness) be selected that can
withstand large cracks before fracturing.
Fracture mechanics must be used:
Determine minimum detectable crack length (how small of crack can
nondestructive testing detect)
Determine critical crack length for the maximum load
Create a crack growth curve showing crack length as a function of number
of cyclic loads
Determine how much time is required from the crack to grow from the
minimum detectable length to critical length.
Leak-before-break – pressure vessels use this method to prevent explosive
failures. Pressure vessels are designed such that a crack will propagate
completely through the vessel before it reaches critical length. Generally, the
cracks will start at the internal wall and progress outward, radially. Leaks are
generally easy to detect, and therefore, should be detected before the crack grows
to critical length. See Figure 1

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Figure 1 – Leak-before-break in a pressure vessel.
Crack Arresters – to prevent cracks that exceed critical length from fracturing
the entire part, crack arresters may be added to the structure. In aircraft these are
in the form of riveted straps added to the skin. This will contain the crack to a
small area of the structure. See Figure 2.
Effectively, what is occurring is the crack tip stress intensity decreases as it
approaches the arresters. The arresters start to carry more and more load, thus
decreasing the load near the crack tip.

Figure 2 – crack arresters preventing extensive crack growth in a panel with axial loads.

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