Stress – is a force or load per unit area.
F
1. Nominal Stress, σ
– the area is A
normal to the
force carried. F
2. Shear Stress, τ
– the area is F A
parallel to the F
force.
Yield stress Ultimate stress point
Stress, S Point
Breaking stress point
Plastic state
Of material
Elastic State of material
E = modulus of elasticity
Strain, ε
Yield Stress, Sy – stress that could cause
failure.
Ultimate Stress, Su – maximum stress
without causing deformation.
Allowable Stress or Safe Stress, Sa :
Su Where:
Sa= Su = ultimate stress
FS FS = factor of safety or design factor
Design Stress, Sd :
Su Sy
Sd = or Sd=
FS FS
Working Stress, Sw – stress actually occurring
under operating conditions.
Endurance Limit or Fatigue Limit, Se or Sn :
– maximum stress that will not cause
failure when the force is reversed
indefinitely.
Residual Stress
– internal, inherent, trapped, locked-up body
stress that exist within a material as a result
of things other than external loading such as
cold working, heating or cooling, etching,
repeated stressing and electroplating.
1. Tensile Stress, St :
Ft 4Ft A
St = =
A 𝜋d2
Ft
2. Compressive Stress, Sc : Fc
A
Fc 4Fc
Sc = =
A 𝜋d2
3. Shearing Stress, Ss : A
Fs 4Fs Fs
Ss = = Fs
A 𝜋d2 d
Fb
4. Bearing Stress, Sb :
Fs Fb d
Sb = =
A LD
L
5. Torsional Stress, Ss : T
T c 16T D
c Neutral Axis
Ss = =
J 𝜋D3 Solid Shaft T
Tc 16TD c Neutral Axis
Ss = = D d
J 𝜋 D4 − d4
Hollow Shaft
Where:
J = polar moment of inertia
c = distance of farthest fiber from the neutral axis
= D/2 for circular cross-section
6. Bending (Flexural) Stress, Sf :
F NA h
Mc M M c
Sf = = = b
I I/c Z
Where:
M = moment
c = distance of farthest fiber from the neutral axis
= h/2 for rectangular cross-section
= d/2 for circular cross-section
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis
= bh3/12 for rectangular cross-section
Z = section modulus
7. Strain, Elongation (or Shortening):
y S F/A FL
ε= E= = =
L ε y/L yA
Where: (Hooke’s Law)
y = elongation A L
L = original length
F = force applied y
A = cross-sectional area
Ft
S = stress
E = modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus)
= 30 x 106 psi or 206,786 MPa for steel
= 10 x 106 psi for aluminum
8. Thermal Elongation & Thermal Stress:
y/2 L y/2
∆L = y = k L Tf − To
∆A = γ A Tf − To Where:
y = elongation due to ΔT
∆V = βL Tf − To k = coef. of linear thermal expansion
γ = coef. of area thermal expansion
y β = coef. of volume thermal expansion
S = E = yE Tf − To To = initial temperature
L Tf = final temperature
E = thermal strain
εth = y Tf − To
9. Combined Torsional & Flexural Loadings:
T Fb
R1 R2
16 2 2
Ss max =
3
T +M
𝜋D
16 2 2
St max = M+ T +M
𝜋D3