OSR Academy

INDEX

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Chapter Name Page No.

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1. D AND F BLOCK 1-12

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2. COORDINATION COMPOUND 13-23

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3. ALDEHYDE KETONE AND CARBOXYLIC 24-50

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4. BIOMOLECULES 51-69
5. AMINES 70-80
 OSR Academy
D & f Block Elements
Those elements in which valence electron enter in to (n-1) d- orbital are filed are called d-block elements.

General configuration : (n - 1) 𝒅𝟏−𝟏𝟎 𝒏𝒔𝟏−𝟐

Q. What are transition elements? Why are they called so?

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Ans. A transition element is defined as the elements with have incompletely filed d-orbital in its ground state or common

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oxidation state.

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They are called transition elements because they are present between s-block & p – block elements.

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Q. Why zn, cd & Hg are non – transition elements?

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Ans. Zinc, cadmium, mercury are non-transition elements because they don not have incompletely filled (n-1) d- orbital in

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their ground state as well as in their common oxidation state.

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Q. Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (𝟒𝒅𝟏𝟎 ) in its ground state. How can you say that it is a transition

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element?

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Ans. Silver ( atomic no = 47), in its +1 oxidation state exhibits 4𝑑10 5𝑠 0 configuration. But in some compounds, it also
snows +2 oxidation state i.e, 4𝑑9 5𝑠 0 configuration, here d-orbital is not completely filled therefore, silver is transition
element.

Note :- we can explain that gold is a transition element.

General Characteristics of transition Elements

1. Enthalpy of atomization / melting point :-
It depends on-

(a) NO of valence electrons

(b) More is the stranger inter – atomic interaction or metallic bonding, higher is the enthalpy of atomization or
melting point.
Q. In 3d series, Zn has lowest enthalpy of atomization why?
Or
Q. in the 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔− 𝑺𝒄 (𝒛 = 𝟐𝟏) to Zn (Z = 30) the enthalpy of atomization of zine is the lowest, i.e, 126
𝑲𝑱 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 why?

Ans. 𝑍𝑛 ∶ [𝐴𝑟]18 452 3𝑑10

Due to absence of valence electrons, there is no interatomic metallic bonding

Q. In 3d series, Cr has highest enthalpy of atomisation why?

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Ans. 𝐶𝑟 ∶ [𝐴𝑟]18 4 𝑠 2 3𝑑 5

Due to the presence of 6 unpaired elections the extent of interatomic metallic bonding in more
Note – Second & third series have greater enthalpy of atomisation than first series

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2. Atomic & Ionic size:

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Q. Write a note an Lanthanoid contraction. Give, its consequences.

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Ans. The phenomenon of cumulative decrease in the atomic size due to filling of 4f orbital before 5d orbital

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having poor shielding effect is called lanthanoid contraction.

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Consequences:

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(1) Zn ( zirconium 160 pm) & Hf (Hafnium 159 pm) show similar properties and same atomic size

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(2) It is difficult to separate elements of 4d & 5d series due to similar physical & chemical properties. They are

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separated y ion – ex charge method.

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(3) The decrease in metallic radius compete with increase in atomic mass results in increase in the density of

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elements.

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3. Magnetic Properties :

(a) There are only two types of magnetic behavior that is Paramagnets and diamagnetism.
(b) Magnetic moment is determined by number of unpaired :

𝜇 = √𝑛 (n + 2)
Where, n = no of unpaired electron.
S.I unit = BM (Bohr Magneton)

Q. Calculate the ‘Spin only’ magnetic moment of 𝑴𝟐+

(𝑧 = 27) 𝑀2+ = [𝐴𝑟]18 450 3𝑑 7

𝑛 = 10 − 7 = 3

𝜇 = = √𝑛 (𝑛 + 2) = √3 × 5 = √15 = 3.92 𝐵𝑀

4. Formation of coloured :

Cause : (a) When an electron from lower energy d-orbital is excited to a higher energy d-orbital the exergy of
excitation corresponds to the frequency of light absorbed

(b) When this electron fails back to lower energy level, it emits radiations in visible spectrum.
This process is called d-d transition.
(c) The colour obscured corresponds to the complementary colour.
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Q. Write a note on d-d transition.

Q. Why salts of zine are transparent / write in colour?
Ans. Due to absence to unpaired electron, there is no d-d transition hence, it transparent.

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5. Formation of complexes:

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Complex compounds are those in which metal atom or ion bind a number of anions or neutral molecules giving

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complex species with characteristic properties.

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Q. Why transition metals form complexes?

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Ans. Transition elements form complexes clue to

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(a) Smoller size of metal ions (b) their high ionic charges (c) availability of vacant (n - 1) d-orbital

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6. Tendency to act as catalyst :-

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Q. Why transition elements act as catalyst?
Ans. Transition elements act as catalyst due to
(a) Multiple oxidation state (b) Tendency to form complexes.
Example: 𝑉2 𝑂5 is used as catalyst in contact process catalyst at a solid involve the formation of bonds between
reactant molecule & atoms of surface of catalyst

7. Formation of interstitial compounds.

(a) Interstitial compounds are those which are formed wen small atoms like H, C, OR, N are trapped inside the
Crystal lattice of metals.
(b) They are non – stochiometric
Properties
(1) They have high meting point than those of pure metals.

(2) They are tard and brittle.

(3) They retain metallic conductivity
(4) They are chemically inert.
8. Alloy formation
(a) Alloys are homogenous mixture of two or more elements in variable proportion

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Q. Why transition metal form alloy?

Ans. Alloys are formed when the metallic radi of atoms are within the range of 157. Of each other eg Bras is an
alloy of copper & Zinc

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9. Ionisation Enthalpy :-

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Although Ionization enthalpy increase from left to right but due to extra stability of 𝑑 3 , 𝑑 5 & 𝑑10 configuration,

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there is irregular variation in ionization enthalpy.

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Q. Which is the stronger reducing agent 𝑪𝒓𝟐+ or 𝑭𝒆𝟐+ why?

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Q. Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or fluoride only?

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Q. Why 𝑪𝒓𝟐+ is reducing & 𝑴𝒏𝟑+ oxidizing when both have 𝒅𝟒 configuration?

10. Oxidation state :

Q. To what extent do the electronic configuration decide the stability of oxidation stake in the first series of the
transition elements? Illustrate your answer with an example

𝟏𝟏. 𝑬° values depends upon –

(a) Enthalpy of sublimation / atomization

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(b) Ionization enthalpy

(c) Hydration / solvation enthalpy

Q. Why 𝑬° (𝑴𝒏+ /𝑴) value for copper is positive?

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Q. Explain why 𝑪𝒖+ ion is not stable in aqueous solution?

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Ans. In aqueous solution, 𝐶𝑢+ ion under goes disproportion

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2 𝐶𝑢+ → 𝐶𝑢2+ + 𝐶𝑢

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The stability of 𝐶𝑢2 (𝑎𝑞 ) rather than 𝐶𝑢+ (𝑎𝑞) is due to more negative hydration enthalpy compensates for

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second lonization enthalpy of copper.

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Q. Why is 𝑬° value for 𝑴𝒏𝟑+ /𝑴𝒏𝟐+ complex much more positive than that for 𝑪𝒓𝟑+ /𝑪𝒓𝟐+ or 𝑭𝒆𝟑+ /𝑭𝒆𝟐+

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Q. On what ground can you say that scandium (z = 21) is a transition element but zine (z = 30) is not?

Q. How would you account for the irregular variation of ionization enthalpies (first and second) in the first
rerise of the transition elements?

Q. For the first row transition metals the 𝑬° values are:

𝑬° 𝑽 𝑪𝒓 𝑴𝒏 𝑭𝒆 𝑪𝒐 𝑵𝒊 𝑪𝒖
𝑴𝟐+ |𝑴| −𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 −𝟏. 𝟏𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟒𝟒 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟖 −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 +𝟎. 𝟑𝟒

Q. Calculate the magnetic moment of a divalent ion in aqueous solution if its atomic no is 25.

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Q. What is meant by ‘disproportionation ’ of on oxidation state? Give an example

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Ques. Explain briefly how +2 oxidation state becomes more and more stable in the first half of the first row

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transition elements with increasing atomic number.

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Ques. Explain why transition elements have many irregularities in their electronic configuration?

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OR why transition elements snow variable oxidation states ?

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Ques. What are different oxidation states exhibited by Lanthanides ?
Ques. How is the variability in oxidation state of transition metals different from that of the non-transition
metals illustrate with examples
Ques. Why do transition elements show variable oxidation states ?
Ques. Comment on the statement that elements of the first transition species posses many properties
different from those of heavier transition metal
\Ques. Give examples and suggest reasons for the following feature of the transition metal Chemistry.
(i) The lower oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is amphoteric acidic.
(ii) A transition metal exhibits highest oxidation state in oxides and fluorides.
(iii) Of the 𝒅𝟒 series, 𝑪𝒓𝟐+ is strongly reducing white managers (II) is strongly oxidizing.

Q. Give reasons for the following :-

(a) Fe has higher melting point than Cu.

(b) [𝑻𝒊 (𝑯𝟐 𝑶)]𝟑+ is colored while [𝑺𝒄 (𝑯𝟐 𝑶)𝟔 ] + 𝟑 is colorless.

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COMPOUNDS OF CHROMIUM AND MANGANESE :

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OSR Academy
Coordination Compound
Coordination Compound are those addition molecular compounds which retain their identity
in solid state as well in dissolved state. In these compounds the central metal atom or ion is

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linked or molecules with coordinates bonds e.g. Potassium Ferrocyanide , K 4 [Fe(CN)6].

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Double Salts
These are the addition molecular compounds which are suitable in solid state but dissociate
into Constituent ions in the solutions. Eg Mohr’s Salt, [FeSO4 .(NH4)2 SO4 . 6H2O get dissociated
into Fe2+, NH4 and SO2- 4 ions

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Terms Related to Coordination Compounds

1. Complex ion or Coordination Entity

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It is an electrically charges species in which central metal atom or ion is surrounded by

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number of ions or natural molecules.

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(i) Cationic Complex entity :

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It is the complex ion which carries positive charges eg [Pt(NH 3)4]2+

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(ii) Anionic Complex Entity

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It is the complex ion which carries negative charges eg [Fe(CN)4]-4

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(iii) Neutral Complex Entity :

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It is the complex which do not have any charge eg [Fe(CN) 2(H2O)4]

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2. Central Atom or Ion
The atom or ion to which a fixed number of ions or groups are bounded is called central atom
or ion. It is also referred as Lewis acid.
Eg in (NiCl2(H2O)4]. Ni is central metal atom. It is generally transition element or inner-
transition element.

3. Ligands
Ligands is electron donation species (ions or molecules) bound to the central atom is the
coordination entity. These may be charged or neutral. Ligands are of the following types:
(i) Unidentate: It is a ligand, which one donor site, i.e, the ligand bound to a metal ion
through a single donor site. E.g, H2O, NH3 etc.
(ii) Didentate : It is the ligand which have two donor sites.

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(iii) Polydentate: It is the ligand, which have several donor sites, .e.g [EDTA] 4 is hexadentate
ligand.

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(iv) Ambidentate ligands: These are the monodentate ligands

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which can ligate through two different sites, [Link] No-2, SCN-

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etc.

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(v) Chelating ligands: Di or polydentate ligands cause

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cyclisation around the metal atom which are known as chelate ,

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such ligands uses two or more donor atoms to bind a single metal ion and are known as

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chelating ligands.

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More the number of chelate rings, more is the stability of complex. The stabilistation of

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coordination compound due to chelation is known as chelate effect. 𝛑 – acid ligands are
those ligands which can form 𝛑 – bond and n – bond by accepting an appreciable amount of
1t electron from metal atom to empty 𝛑 or 𝛑 – orbitals.
4. Coordination Number
It is defined as the number of coordinate bonds formed by central metal atom, with the
ligands.
5. Coordination Sphere
The central ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in square bracket which is known
as coordination sphere. The ionisable group written outside the bracket is known as counter
ions.
6. Coordination Polyhedron
The spatial arrangement of the ligands which are directly attached to the central atom or ion,
is called coordination polyhedron around the central atom or ion.
7. Oxidation Number of Central Atom
The charge of the complex if all the ligands are removed along with the electron pairs that are
shared with the central atom, is called oxidation number of central atom.

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OSR Academy

Types of Complexes

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1. Homoleptic complexes

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Complexes in which the metal atom or ion is linked to only one kind of donor atoms, are

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called homoleptic complexes e.g., [Co(NH3)6] 3+

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2. Heteroleptic complexes

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Complexes in which the metal atom or ion is linked to more than one kind of donor atoms are

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called heteroleptic complexes e.g., [Co(NH 3)4CI2] +

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3. Labile and Inert complexes

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Complexes in which the ligand substitution is fast are known as labile complexes and in which

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ligand substitution is slow, are known as inert complexes.

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IUPAC Naming of complexes :

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OSR Academy
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds
Coordination compounds exhibit the following types of isomerism
[Link] Isomerism

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In this isomerism. isomers have different bonding pattern. Different types of structural

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isomers are

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(i) Linkage isomerism This type of isomerism is shown by the coordination compounds

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having ambidentate ligands.

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e.g., [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl and [Co(NH3)5(ONO)]Cl

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(ii) Coordination isomerism

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This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between cationic and anionic

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complexes of different metal ions present in a complex, e.g.,

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[Cr(NH3)6) [CO(CN)6] and [CO(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6]

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(iii) Ionisation isomerism
This isomerism arise due to exchange of ionisable anion with anionic ligand. e.g..
(iv) Solvate isomerism
This is also known as hydrate isomerism. In this isomerism, water is taken as solvent. It has
different number of water molecules in the coordination sphere and outside it.
e.g.. [Co(H2O)6]CI3,
[Co(H2O)4Cl2]Cl·2H2O
[Co(H2O)3Cl3]. 3H2O
2. Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomers have the same chemical formula and chemical bonds but they have different
spatial arrangement. These are of two types :
(i) Geometrical isomerism
Geometrical isomers are of two types i.e., cis and trans isomers. This isomerism is common in
complexes with coordination number 4 and 6.
Geometrical isomerism in complexes with coordination number 4
(i) Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism.

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(ii) Square planar complexes :

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- The energy difference between t2g and eg level is designated by Δ and is called crystal field
splitting energy.
- By using spectroscopic data for a number of coordination compounds, having the same metal
ions but different ligand, the crystal field splitting for each ligand has been calculated.
- A series in which ligand are arranged in order of increasing magnitude of crystal field splitting, is
called spectrochemical series.

Spectrochemical series :

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Werner's Theory
 OSR Academy
Metals exhibit two types of valences in the formation of complexes.
These are primary valences and secondary valences.
1. Primary valences correspond to oxidation number (ON) of the metal and are satisfied by

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anions. These are ionizable and non-directional.

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2. Secondary valences correspond to coordination number (CN) of the metal atom and are

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satisfied by ligands. These are non-ionisable and directional. Hence, geometry is decided by

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these valences.

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OSR Academy
Aldehydes , Ketone and Carboxylic acids
Naming of Aldehydes and Ketone

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Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketone

a) By oxidation of alcohols
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Aldehydes and ketones are generally prepared by oxidation of primary and secondary
alcohols

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1)
b) By dehydrogenation of alcohols
This method is suitable for volatile alcohols and is of industrial application. In this
method alcohol vapours are passed over heavy metal catalysts (Ag or Cu). Primary
and secondary alcohols give aldehydes and ketones

C) Ozonolysis

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OSR Academy

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Prep of aldehydes :
Preparation Of Aldehydes
1. From acyl chloride (acid chloride)
Acyl chloride (acid chloride) is hydrogenated over catalyst, palladium on barium
sulphate. This reaction is called Rosenmund reduction.

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2. From nitriles and esters

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Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imine with stannous chloride in the presence of
hydrochloric acid, which on hydrolysis give corresponding aldehyde.
This reaction is called Stephen reaction

[Link] hydrocarbons

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Aromatic aldehydes (benzaldehyde and its derivatives) are prepared from

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aromatic hydrocarbons by the following method:

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a) Use of chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2) Chromyl chloride oxidises methyl group to a

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chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde.

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(b) Use of chromic oxide (CrO3): Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to

benzylidene diacetate on treating with chromic oxide in acetic anhydride. The
benzylidene diacetate can be hydrolysed to corresponding benzaldehyde with aqueous
acid.

Page 29
OSR Academy

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(ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis Side chain chlorination of toluene

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gives benzal chloride, which on hydrolysis gives benzaldehyde. This is a commercial

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(iii) By Gatterman – Koch reaction : When benzene or its derivative is treated with
carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium
chloride or cuprous chloride, it gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehyde.

Preparation of ketone
1. From acyl chlorides

Page 30
OSR Academy
Treatment of acyl chlorides with dialkylcadmium, prepared by the reaction of cadmium
chloride with Grignard reagent, gives ketones.

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2. From nitriles
Treating a nitrile with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis yields a ketone.

3. From benzene or substituted benzenes

Page 31
OSR Academy
When benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid chloride in the presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride, it affords the corresponding ketone. This reaction is
known as Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction.

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Physical Properties
Methanal is a gas at room temperature. Ethanal is a volatile liquid. Other aldehydes
and ketones are liquid or solid at room temperature.
The boiling points of aldehydes and ketones are higher than hydrocarbons and ethers
of comparable molecular masses. It is due to weak molecular association in aldehydes
and ketones arising out of the dipole-dipole interactions.
Also, their boiling points are lower than those of alcohols of similar molecular masses
due to absence of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
Chemical Reactions
1. Nucleophilic addition reactions
Contrary to electrophilic addition reactions observed in alkenes, the aldehydes and
ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions.
(i) Mechanism of nucleophilic addition reactions

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OSR Academy

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(ii) Reactivity

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Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions

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substituents in ketones hinders the approach of nucleophile to carbonyl carbon than in

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aldehydes having only one such substituent.

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1)
(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN):

(b) Addition of sodium hydrogen sulphite:

Page 33
OSR Academy

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(c) Addition of Grignard reagents:

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(d) Addition of alcohols: Aldehydes react with one equivalent of monohydric alcohol in 1)

the presence of dry hydrogen chloride to yield alkoxyalcohol intermediate, known as

hemiacetals, which further react with one more molecule of alcohol to give a gem-
dialkoxy compound known as acetal as shown in the reaction

(e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives:

Page 34
OSR Academy

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2. Reduction

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1)
(i) Reduction to alcohols: Aldehydes and ketones are reduced to primary and
secondary alcohols respectively by sodium borohydride (NaBH4 ) or lithium aluminium
hydride (LiAlH4 ) as well as by catalytic hydrogenation (Unit 7, Class XII)

(ii) Reduction to hydrocarbons:

The carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to CH2 group on treatment
with zinc-amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid [Clemmensen reduction] or with
hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling
solvent such as ethylene glycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction).

Page 35
OSR Academy

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3. Oxidation

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Aldehydes differ from ketones in their oxidation reactions. Aldehydes are easily

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oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with common oxidising agents like nitric acid,

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potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, etc. Even mild oxidising agents,

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mainly Tollens’ reagent and Fehlings’ reagent also oxidise aldehydes

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(i) Tollens’ test:

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On warming an aldehyde with freshly prepared ammoniacal silver nitrate solution

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(Tollens’ reagent), a bright silver mirror is produced due to the formation of silver metal.

1)
The aldehydes are oxidised to corresponding carboxylate anion. The reaction occurs in
alkaline medium.

(ii) Fehling’s test:

Page 36
OSR Academy

(iii) Oxidation of methyl ketones by haloform reaction:

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Aldol condensation:
(ii) Cross aldol condensation: When aldol condensation is carried out between two
different aldehydes and / or ketones, it is called cross aldol condensation. If both of
them contain a-hydrogen atoms, it gives a mixture of four products. This is illustrated
below by aldol reaction of a mixture of ethanal and propanal.

Page 37
OSR Academy

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5. Other reactions

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(i) Cannizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an a-hydrogen atom, undergo

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self oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on heating with concentrated

1)
alkali. In this reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is reduced to alcohol while
another is oxidised to carboxylic acid salt.

(ii) Electrophilic substitution reaction:

Aromatic aldehydes and ketones undergo electrophilic substitution at the ring in which
the carbonyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group.

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OSR Academy
OSR Academy

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Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones

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In chemical industry aldehydes and ketones are used as solvents, starting materials

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and reagents for the synthesis of other products. Formaldehyde is well known as

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formalin (40%) solution used to preserve biological specimens and to prepare bakelite

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(a phenol-formaldehyde resin), urea-formaldehyde glues and other polymeric products.
Acetaldehyde is used primarily as a starting material in the manufacture of acetic acid,
ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate, polymers and drugs. Benzaldehyde is used in perfumery
and in dye industries. Acetone and ethyl methyl ketone are common industrial solvents.
Many aldehydes and ketones, e.g., butyraldehyde, vanillin, acetophenone, camphor,
etc. are well known for their odours and flavours

Carboxylic Acids
Nomenclature

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 Page 41
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OSR Academy
 Page 42
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OSR Academy
 Page 43
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OSR Academy
 Page 44
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Physical Properties
OSR Academy
OSR Academy

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Chemical Reactions

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1. Reactions Involving Cleavage of O–H Bond

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Acidity

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Reactions with metals and alkalies The carboxylic acids like alcohols evolve hydrogen

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with electropositive metal and form salts with alkalies similar to phenols. However,

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unlike phenols they react with weaker bases such as carbonates and hydrogen

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carbonates to evolve carbon dioxide. This reaction is used to detect the presence of

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Page 45
OSR Academy

Reactions Involving Cleavage of C–OH Bond

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1. Formation of anhydride

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Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as H2 SO4 or with P2O5 give

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corresponding anhydride.

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2. Esterification
Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols or phenols in the presence of a mineral
acid such as concentrated H2 SO4 or HCl gas as a catalyst.

Page 46
OSR Academy
3. Reactions with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2
The hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids, behaves like that of alcohols and is easily
replaced by chlorine atom on treating with PCl5 , PCl3 or SOCl2 . Thionyl chloride
(SOCl2) is preferred because the other two products are gaseous and escape the

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reaction mixture making the purification of the products easier.

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4. Reaction with ammonia

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Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salt which on further heating

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at high temperature give amides. For example:

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1)

Reactions Involving –COOH Group

Page 47
OSR Academy
1. Reduction
Carboxylic acids are reduced to primary alcohols by lithium aluminium hydride or better
with diborane. Diborane does not easily reduce functional groups such as ester, nitro,
halo, etc. Sodium borohydride does not reduce the carboxyl group.

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Decarboxylation

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Carboxylic acids lose carbon dioxide to form hydrocarbons when their sodium salts are

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heated with sodalime (NaOH and CaO in the ratio of 3 : 1). The reaction is known as

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decarboxylation.

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1)
Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part
1. Halogenation
Carboxylic acids having an a-hydrogen are halogenated at the 𝛼-position on treatment
with chlorine or bromine in the presence of small amount of red phosphorus to give a-
halocarboxylic acids. The reaction is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.

2. Ring substitution
Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic substitution reactions in which the
carboxyl group acts as a deactivating and meta-directing group. They however, do not
undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction (because the carboxyl group is deactivating and the
catalyst aluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl group).

Page 48
OSR Academy

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Uses of Carboxylic Acids

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Methanoic acid is used in rubber, textile, dyeing, leather and electroplating industries.

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Ethanoic acid is used as solvent and as vinegar in food industry. Hexanedioic acid is

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used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6. Esters of benzoic acid are used in perfumery.

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Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative. Higher fatty acids are used for the

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manufacture of soaps and detergents

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OSR Academy
OSR ACADMEY
XII-CHEMISTRY
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules:
The structure and functions of biomolecules inside the living being is studied in biochemistry. Living systems are made up of

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various complex biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, lipids, vitamins, hormones, nucleic acids and

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compounds for storage and exchange of energy such as ATP, etc.

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Proteins:

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Proteins are high molecular mass complex biopolymer of a-amino acids present in all living cells.

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They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental basis of structure and functions of life.

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The term protein is derived from the Greek word "proteios" which means of prime importance.

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Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system.

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Chief sources of proteins are milk, cheese, pulses, peanuts, fish etc.

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OSR ACADMEY
OSR ACADMEY

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Classification of Protein :-
On the basis of molecular shape, proteins are classified into two types :
(1) Fibrous Proteins : When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then
fibre-like structure is formed, known as fibrous proteins. Such proteins are insoluble in water. For example: Keratin(hair),
Myosin(muscles) etc.

(b) Globular proteins

This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water.
Insulin and albumins are the common examples of globular proteins.

Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different levels, i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each
level being more complex than the previous one.

Page 53
OSR ACADMEY

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(i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has amino

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acids linked with each other in a specific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids that is said to be the primary structure

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of that protein.

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Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different protein.

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(ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can

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exist. They are found to exist in two different types of structures viz. ∝-helix and 𝛽-pleated sheet structure. These structures

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arise due to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding between and - NH − groups

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of the peptide bond. ∝-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds

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by twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the -NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the C = O of an

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adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig.

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In 𝛽 −pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension and then laid side by side which
are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is
known as b-pleated sheet.

Page 54
OSR ACADMEY
(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of the polypeptide chains i.e.,
further folding of the secondary structure. It gives rise to two major molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular. The main forces
which stabilise the 2∘ and 3∘ structures of proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic
forces of attraction.

(iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-
units. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as quaternary structure. (Hemoglobin in
𝛽𝛽 𝛽 ('s)

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Denaturation of Proteins : The loss in biological activity of a protein due to unfolding of globules and uncoiling of helix is called
denaturation of protein. During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but primary structure remains
intact. The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation.

Denaturation of Proteins : The loss in biological activity of a protein due to unfolding of globules and uncoiling of helix is called
denaturation of protein. During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but primary structure remains
intact. The coagulation of egs white on boiling is a common example of denaturation.

Page 55
OSR ACADMEY
Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds which are essential for normal growth of life for animals, some bacteria and micro organism.
Vitamins are not synthesized by animals (except vitamin D). Vitamins are supplied to the organism through food. They are
essential dietary factor.

Classification

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(1) Water Soluble Vitamins : Vitamin-B-complex and vitamin-C are water soluble. (except vitamin B12).

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(2) Fat Soluble Vitamins : Vitamin-A (Retinol), Vitamin-D (Calciferol), Vitamin-E (Tocopherol), Vitamin-K (Phylloquinone).

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Why water soluble vitamins should be taken regular in our diet ?

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OSR ACADMEY
Carbohydrates
Hydrates of carbon having general formula, Cx(H2O)y, is known as carbohydrates.

NOTE : Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce
such units on hydrolysis.

Some of the carbohydrates which are sweet to taste, are also called sugars.

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Carbohydrates are also called saccharides

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(Greek: sakcharon means sugar).

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Classification of Carbohydrates

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On the basis of their behaviour upon hydrolysis, carbohydrates can be divided into three main groups :

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(i) Monosaccharides : A carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called

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monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. e.g., glucose, fructose, ribose etc.

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(ii) Oligosaccharides : A carbohydrate which upon hydrolysis yields 2-10 unit of monosaccharide is called oligosaccharide. They

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hydrolysis. For example, sucrose is a disaccharide which on hydrolysis yields two unit of monosaccharides i.e., glucose and

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(iii) Polysaccharides : A high molecular mass carbohydrate which upon hydrolysis yields a large number of monosaccharide units

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is called polysaccharide e.g., starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.

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Page 57
OSR ACADMEY

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Some of the carbohydrates which are sweet to taste, are also called sugars.

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Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means sugar).

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Classification of Carbohydrates

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On the basis of their behaviour upon hydrolysis, carbohydrates can be divided into three main groups:

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(i) Monosaccharides : A carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called

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monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. e.g., glucose, fructose, ribose etc.

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OSR ACADMEY

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Structure of Glucose:
Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose. It is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch,
cellulose. It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. It was assigned the structure given below on the basis of
the following evidences:

2. Glucose reacts with NH2 OH to form an oxime and adds molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin. These reactions
confirm the presence of a carbonyl group ( > C = O ) in glucose
3. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water.
This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.
4. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which confirms the presence of five -OH groups. Since
it exists as a stable compound, five -OH group's should be attached to different carbon atoms.

Page 59
OSR ACADMEY
5. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the
presence of a primary alcoholic (−OH) group in glucose

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OSR ACADMEY
OSR ACADMEY

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The open structure of glucose explained most of its properties but the following reactions and facts could not be
explained by this structure.

1 Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff's test and it does not form the
hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3.
2 The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free - CHO group. 3.
Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as alpha and beta. The alpha-form
of glucose (m.p. 419 K ) is obtained by crystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while the
beta-form (m.p. 423 K ) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and saturated aqueous solution at 371 K .

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OSR ACADMEY

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Disaccharides :
The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a
linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.

Page 64
OSR ACADMEY
1. Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)
glucose and D-(-) fructose.

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2. Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two alpha-D-glucose units.

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3. Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of beta-
Dgalactose and beta-D-glucose.

Polysaccharides :

Page 65
OSR ACADMEY
1 Starch : Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is the most important dietary source for human
beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables. It is a polymer of
alphaglucose and consists of two components- Amylose and Amylopectin.

Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes about 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎% of starch. Chemically amylose is a
long unbranched chain with 200-1000 alpha-D-(+)-glucose units. Amylopectin is insoluble in water and
constitutes about 80 − 85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of alphaD-glucose units.
2 Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant

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kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide

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composed only of beta-D-glucose units which are joined by glycosidic linkage

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3 Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because

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its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscles and

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brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in

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yeast and fungi.

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Enzymes:

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Biochemical reactions occur with the help of certain biocatalysts called enzymes.

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Almost all the enzymes are globular proteins.

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Enzymes are very specific for a particular reaction and for a particular substrate. They are generally named after the

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compound or class of compounds upon which they work. For example, the enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose

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into glucose is named as maltase.

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)

Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction. Similar to the action of chemical catalysts,
enzymes are said to reduce the magnitude of activation energy. For example, activation energy for acid hydrolysis of
sucrose is 6.22 kJ mol-1, while the activation energy is only 2.15 kJ mol-1 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase.

Page 66
 Page 67
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OSR ACADMEY
 Page 68
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OSR ACADMEY
OSR ACADMEY
 Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage.
Structure of DNA and RNA :

 Two nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of
bases. - The two strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are formed between
specific pairs of bases.
 Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.

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Differences between DNA and RNA :

DNA Fingerprinting
It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the fingers and have been used for
identification for a long time but these can be altered by surgery. A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a
person and information regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every cell and cannot be altered by
any known treatment. DNA fingerprinting is now used
(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals.
(ii) to determine paternity of an individual.
(iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA's of parents or children.
(iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

Page 69
OSR ACADMEY
XII-CHEMISTRY
BIOMOLECULES
Biomolecules:
The structure and functions of biomolecules inside the living being is studied in biochemistry. Living systems are made up of

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various complex biomolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, lipids, vitamins, hormones, nucleic acids and

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compounds for storage and exchange of energy such as ATP, etc.

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Proteins:

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Proteins are high molecular mass complex biopolymer of a-amino acids present in all living cells.

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They occur in every part of the body and form the fundamental basis of structure and functions of life.

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The term protein is derived from the Greek word "proteios" which means of prime importance.

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Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system.

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OSR ACADMEY
OSR ACADMEY

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Classification of Protein :-
On the basis of molecular shape, proteins are classified into two types :
(1) Fibrous Proteins : When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide bonds, then
fibre-like structure is formed, known as fibrous proteins. Such proteins are insoluble in water. For example: Keratin(hair),
Myosin(muscles) etc.

(b) Globular proteins

This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical shape. These are usually soluble in water.
Insulin and albumins are the common examples of globular proteins.

Structure and shape of proteins can be studied at four different levels, i.e., primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, each
level being more complex than the previous one.

Page 72
OSR ACADMEY

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(i) Primary structure of proteins: Proteins may have one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide in a protein has amino

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acids linked with each other in a specific sequence and it is this sequence of amino acids that is said to be the primary structure

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of that protein.

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Any change in this primary structure i.e., the sequence of amino acids creates a different protein.

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(ii) Secondary structure of proteins: The secondary structure of protein refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain can

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exist. They are found to exist in two different types of structures viz. ∝-helix and 𝛽-pleated sheet structure. These structures

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arise due to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide chain due to hydrogen bonding between and - NH − groups

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of the peptide bond. ∝-Helix is one of the most common ways in which a polypeptide chain forms all possible hydrogen bonds

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by twisting into a right handed screw (helix) with the -NH group of each amino acid residue hydrogen bonded to the C = O of an

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adjacent turn of the helix as shown in Fig.

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In 𝛽 −pleated sheet structure all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension and then laid side by side which
are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The structure resembles the pleated folds of drapery and therefore is
known as b-pleated sheet.

Page 73
OSR ACADMEY
(iii) Tertiary structure of proteins: The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of the polypeptide chains i.e.,
further folding of the secondary structure. It gives rise to two major molecular shapes viz. fibrous and globular. The main forces
which stabilise the 2∘ and 3∘ structures of proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic
forces of attraction.

(iv) Quaternary structure of proteins: Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-
units. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as quaternary structure. (Hemoglobin in
𝛽𝛽 𝛽 ('s)

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Denaturation of Proteins : The loss in biological activity of a protein due to unfolding of globules and uncoiling of helix is called
denaturation of protein. During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but primary structure remains
intact. The coagulation of egg white on boiling is a common example of denaturation.

Denaturation of Proteins : The loss in biological activity of a protein due to unfolding of globules and uncoiling of helix is called
denaturation of protein. During denaturation secondary and tertiary structures are destroyed but primary structure remains
intact. The coagulation of egs white on boiling is a common example of denaturation.

Page 74
OSR ACADMEY
Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds which are essential for normal growth of life for animals, some bacteria and micro organism.
Vitamins are not synthesized by animals (except vitamin D). Vitamins are supplied to the organism through food. They are
essential dietary factor.

Classification

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Vitamins are classified in two categories :

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(1) Water Soluble Vitamins : Vitamin-B-complex and vitamin-C are water soluble. (except vitamin B12).

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(2) Fat Soluble Vitamins : Vitamin-A (Retinol), Vitamin-D (Calciferol), Vitamin-E (Tocopherol), Vitamin-K (Phylloquinone).

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Page 75
OSR ACADMEY
Carbohydrates
Hydrates of carbon having general formula, Cx(H2O)y, is known as carbohydrates.

NOTE : Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce
such units on hydrolysis.

Some of the carbohydrates which are sweet to taste, are also called sugars.

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Carbohydrates are also called saccharides

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(Greek: sakcharon means sugar).

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Classification of Carbohydrates

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On the basis of their behaviour upon hydrolysis, carbohydrates can be divided into three main groups :

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(i) Monosaccharides : A carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called

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monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. e.g., glucose, fructose, ribose etc.

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(ii) Oligosaccharides : A carbohydrate which upon hydrolysis yields 2-10 unit of monosaccharide is called oligosaccharide. They

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are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides, they provide on

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hydrolysis. For example, sucrose is a disaccharide which on hydrolysis yields two unit of monosaccharides i.e., glucose and

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fructose

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(iii) Polysaccharides : A high molecular mass carbohydrate which upon hydrolysis yields a large number of monosaccharide units

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is called polysaccharide e.g., starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.

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Page 76
OSR ACADMEY

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Some of the carbohydrates which are sweet to taste, are also called sugars.

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Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon means sugar).

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Classification of Carbohydrates

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(i) Monosaccharides : A carbohydrate which cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called

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monosaccharide. About 20 monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. e.g., glucose, fructose, ribose etc.

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Page 77
OSR ACADMEY

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Structure of Glucose:
Glucose is an aldohexose and is also known as dextrose. It is the monomer of many of the larger carbohydrates, namely starch,
cellulose. It is probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. It was assigned the structure given below on the basis of
the following evidences:

2. Glucose reacts with NH2 OH to form an oxime and adds molecule of hydrogen cyanide to give cyanohydrin. These reactions
confirm the presence of a carbonyl group ( > C = O ) in glucose
3. Glucose gets oxidised to six carbon carboxylic acid (gluconic acid) on reaction with a mild oxidising agent like bromine water.
This indicates that the carbonyl group is present as an aldehydic group.
4. Acetylation of glucose with acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaacetate which confirms the presence of five -OH groups. Since
it exists as a stable compound, five -OH group's should be attached to different carbon atoms.

Page 78
OSR ACADMEY
5. On oxidation with nitric acid, glucose as well as gluconic acid both yield a dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the
presence of a primary alcoholic (−OH) group in glucose

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OSR ACADMEY

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The open structure of glucose explained most of its properties but the following reactions and facts could not be
explained by this structure.

1 Despite having the aldehyde group, glucose does not give Schiff's test and it does not form the
hydrogensulphite addition product with NaHSO3.
2 The pentaacetate of glucose does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free - CHO group. 3.
Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms which are named as alpha and beta. The alpha-form
of glucose (m.p. 419 K ) is obtained by crystallisation from concentrated solution of glucose at 303 K while the
beta-form (m.p. 423 K ) is obtained by crystallisation from hot and saturated aqueous solution at 371 K .

Page 81
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OSR ACADMEY
OSR ACADMEY

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Disaccharides :
The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a
linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.

Page 83
OSR ACADMEY
1. Sucrose: One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on hydrolysis gives equimolar mixture of D-(+)
glucose and D-(-) fructose.

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2. Maltose: Another disaccharide, maltose is composed of two alpha-D-glucose units.

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3. Lactose: It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of beta-
Dgalactose and beta-D-glucose.

Polysaccharides :

Page 84
OSR ACADMEY
1 Starch : Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is the most important dietary source for human
beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some vegetables. It is a polymer of
alphaglucose and consists of two components- Amylose and Amylopectin.

Amylose is water soluble component which constitutes about 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟐𝟎% of starch. Chemically amylose is a
long unbranched chain with 200-1000 alpha-D-(+)-glucose units. Amylopectin is insoluble in water and
constitutes about 80 − 85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of alphaD-glucose units.
2 Cellulose: Cellulose occurs exclusively in plants and it is the most abundant organic substance in plant

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kingdom. It is a predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells. Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide

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composed only of beta-D-glucose units which are joined by glycosidic linkage

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3 Glycogen: The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because

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its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in liver, muscles and

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brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose. Glycogen is also found in

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yeast and fungi.

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Enzymes:

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Biochemical reactions occur with the help of certain biocatalysts called enzymes.

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compound or class of compounds upon which they work. For example, the enzyme that catalyses hydrolysis of maltose

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into glucose is named as maltase.

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Mechanism of Enzyme Action

Enzymes are needed only in small quantities for the progress of a reaction. Similar to the action of chemical catalysts,
enzymes are said to reduce the magnitude of activation energy. For example, activation energy for acid hydrolysis of
sucrose is 6.22 kJ mol-1, while the activation energy is only 2.15 kJ mol-1 when hydrolysed by the enzyme, sucrase.

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 Page 86
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OSR ACADMEY
 Page 87
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OSR ACADMEY
OSR ACADMEY
 Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage.
Structure of DNA and RNA :

 Two nucleic acid chains are wound about each other and held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of
bases. - The two strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are formed between
specific pairs of bases.
 Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.

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Differences between DNA and RNA :

DNA Fingerprinting
It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the fingers and have been used for
identification for a long time but these can be altered by surgery. A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a
person and information regarding this is called DNA fingerprinting. It is same for every cell and cannot be altered by
any known treatment. DNA fingerprinting is now used
(i) in forensic laboratories for identification of criminals.
(ii) to determine paternity of an individual.
(iii) to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA's of parents or children.
(iv) to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

Page 88