Genetic Code:

The genetic code may be defined as the exact sequence of DNA

nucleotides read as three letter words or codons, that determines the
sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis. In other words, the
genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in
genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins
(amino acid sequences) by living cells.

The main points related to genetic code are given below:

1. The genetic code is ‘read’ in triplets of bases called codons. In

other words, a set of three nucleotide bases constitutes a codon. 2. In
a triplet code, three RNA bases code for one amino acid. 3. There are
64 codons which correspond to 20 amino acids and to signals for the
initiation and termination of transcription. 4. The code uses codons
to make the amino acids that, in turn, constitute proteins.

5. Each triplet [codon] specifies one amino acid in a protein

structure or a start signal or stop signal in protein synthesis. 6. The
code establishes the relationship between the sequence of bases in
nucleic acids (DNA and the complementary RNA) and the sequence
of amino acids in proteins.
 7. The code explains the mechanism by which genetic information is
stored in living organisms.

Types of Genetic Code:

The genetic code is of two types. The genetic code can be expressed as
either RNA codons or DNA codons. RNA codons occur in messenger
RNA (mRNA) and are the codons that are actually “read” during the
synthesis of polypeptides (the process called translation). But each
mRNA molecule acquires its sequence of nucleotides by transcription
from the corresponding gene [DNA], Because DNA sequencing has
become so rapid and because most genes are now being discovered at
the level of DNA before they are discovered as mRNA or as a protein
product, it is extremely useful to have a table of codons expressed as
DNA. Both tables are given here.

DNA Codons:

These are the codons as they are read on the sense (5′ to 3′) strand of
DNA. Except that the nucleotide thymine (T) is found in place of uracil
(U), they read the same as RNA codons. However, mRNA is actually
synthesized using the antisense strand of DNA (3′ to 5′) as the template.
Types of Codon:

The genetic code consists of 64 triplets of nucleotides. These triplets

are called codons. With three exceptions, each codon encodes for one
of the 20 amino acids used in the synthesis of proteins. This produces
some redundancy in the code.

Most of the amino acids are encoded by more than one codon. One
codon that is AUG serves two related functions. It signals the start of
translation and codes for the incorporation of the amino acid
methionine (Met) into the growing polypeptide chain.

The codons are of two types, viz:

(1) Sense codons, and

(2) Signal codons.

1. Sense Codon:

Those codons that code for amino acids are called sense codons. There
are 61 sense codons in the genetic code which code for 20 amino acids.
2. Signal Codons:

Those codons that code for signals during protein synthesis are known
as signal codons. There are four codons which code for signal. These
are AUG, UAA, UAG and UGA.

Signal codons are of two types, viz:

(i) Start codons, and

(ii) Stop codons.

(i) Start Codons:

The codon which starts the translation process is known as start

codonl. It is also known as initiation codon because it initiates the
synthesis of polypeptide chain. Example of this codon is AUG. This
codon also codes for the amino acid methionine. In some cases, valine
(GUG) codes for start signal. In eukaryotes, the starting amino acid is
methionine, while in prokaryotes it is N-formyl methionine.
(ii) Stop Codons:

Those codons that provide signal for termination of polypeptide chain

are known as stop codons. These codons are also known as termination
codons because they provide signal for the termination and release of
polypeptide chain. Examples of stop codons are UAA, UAG and UGA.
Since stop signal codons do not code for any amino acid they were
earlier called as non-sense codons.

Signals of stop or termination codons are read by proteins called

release factors. Stop signals are not read by tRNA molecules. In
prokaryotes, release factors are RF1, RF2 and RF3. The factor RFI
recognizes stop codons UAA and UAG, while RF2 recognizes UAA and
UGA. The function of RF3 is to stimulate RFI and RF2. In eukaryotes, a
single release factor (RF) recognizes all three stop codons.

Properties of Genetic Code:

(i) Triplet,
(ii) Universal,

(iii) Comma-less,

(iv) Non-overlapping,

(v) Non-ambiguous,

(vi) Redundant, and

(vii) Has polarity.

1. The Code is Triplet:

The genetic code is triplet. The triplet code has 64 codons which are
sufficient to code for 20 amino acids and also for start and stop signals
in the synthesis of polypeptide chain. In a triplet code three RNA bases
code for one amino acid.

2. The Code is Universal:

The genetic code is almost universal. The same codons are assigned to
the same amino acids and to the same START and STOP signals in the
vast majority of genes in animals, plants, and microorganisms.
However, some exceptions have been found.

Most of these involve assigning one or two of the three STOP codons
to an amino acid instead. Some exceptions have been reported for
mitochondrial genome and in unicellular eukaryotes for synthesis of
nonstandard proteins such as selenocysteine and pyrolysine.

3. The Code is Commaless:

It is believed that the genetic code is commaless. In other words, the

codons are continuous and there are no demarcation lines between
codons. Deletion of a single base in a commaless code alters the entire
sequence of amino acids after the point of deletion as given below.
The deletion of base C from leucine will change the genetic
message in the following manner:

Experimental evidences also reveal that the genetic code is commaless.

Khorana and coworkers have also demonstrated that the genetic code is
commaless.

4. The Code is Non-Overlapping:

Three nucleotides or bases code for one amino acid. In a non

overlapping code, six bases will code for two amino acids. In a non
overlapping code, one letter is read only once. In overlapping code, six
nucleotides or bases will code for 4 amino acids, because each base is
read three times

Example: There are Bases : CATGAT Non-overlapping

Code : 2 that is CAT and GAT;

Overlapping Code : 4 that is CAT, GAT, ATG and TAT

If mutation of one base into another leads in alteration of one amino

acid only, it indicates that the code is non-overlapping. Mutation
experiments with TMV gave similar results which indicated that the
code is non-overlapping.

5. The Code is Non-ambiguous:

The genetic code has 64 codons. Out of these, 61 codons code for 20
different amino acids. However, none of the codons codes for more
than one amino acid. In other words, each codon codes only for one

amino acid. This clearly indicates that the genetic code is non
ambiguous. In case of ambiguous code, one codon should code for
more than one amino acid. In the genetic code there is no
ambiguity.

In most of the cases several codons code for the same amino acid. Only
two amino acids, viz. tryptophan and methionine are codded by one
codon each. Nine amino acids are coded by two codons each, one amino
acid [Isoleucine] by three codons, five amino acids by 4 codons each,
and three amino acids by 6 codons each (Table 28.4).
This multiple system of coding is known as degenerate or redundant
code system. Such system provides a protection to the organism
against many harmful mutations, because if one base of a codon is
mutated, there are other codons which will code for the same amino
acid and there will be no alteration in the polypeptide chain.

The redundancy or degeneracy of the code is not random except for

serine, leucine and arginine. All codons coding for same amino acid are
in the same box (except above three). Thus the first two letters are GC
in all four codons of alanine and GC and GU in all four codons of
valine.

7. The Code Has Polarity:

The code has a definite direction for reading of message, which is

referred to as polarity. Reading of codon in opposite direction will
specify for another amino acid due to alteration in the base sequences
in the code.

In the following codons, reading of message from left to right and right
to left will specify for different amino acids. Because the codon in the
following case will be read as UUG from left to right and as GUU from
right to left which codes for another amino acid.
This is well known that the message in mRNA is read in the 5 -3
direction. Thus the polarity of genetic code is from 5 end to 3 end.