G8 super condensed comp review

Part 1. Laboratory

1.1 Safety rules

a. Tie back long hair b. No eating and drinking c. check labels carefully
d. wear lab coat and goggles d. don’t pour chemicals back into the container e. no open shoes

Example question:
What must you not do in the lab?
a. Tie back long hair b. Check labels carefully c. wear goggles
d. Carefully return unused chemicals to their original container

1.2 Significant figures

Rules – Every integer (non-zero number) is always significant 11
Significant
A zero is significant if it is between 2 integers 101
A zero is significant if it is after a integer AND a decimal 0.10 10 0.01

Example question: Solve 1067 * 0.0016 Not Significant

a. 1.7072 b. 1.7 c. 1.707 d. 2

Part 2. Properties of Matter Mass number = no. of

Proton number /
protons + no. of neutrons
atomic number
2.1 Elements and compounds
An element is a chemically made up of only 1 type of atom. We define types of atom by the number of protons.
An isotope is when an element has the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. (e.g. H 11, H12)

Example question: How many neutrons does an isotope of Au79 199 have?
a. 79 b. 199 c. 278 d. 120

A molecule is two or more atoms chemically bonded. Only group 18 exist as individual atoms.

Elements are molecules that are all made of the same atom. Elements can be simple which means that a molecule
always has the same number of atoms (E.g H2, O2, C60). Or giant where a molecule can be large or small (e.g. Fe, Cu).

A compound is made of two or more elements chemically bonded. Again this can be simple (e.g. H2O, CO2) or giant (e.g
SiO2, NaCl).

2.2 Mixtures
A mixture is two or chemicals in the same place that are NOT chemically bonded.

A homogeneous mixture is when the chemicals are perfectly mixed, the mixture
is the same everywhere. (e.g. salt water, air in a balloon)
A heterogeneous mixture is not perfectly mixed different in different place (e.g.
sand in water, a hamburger).

Example question: Identify whether the diagrams show elements, compounds, or

mixtures.

2.3 Separating mixtures

Filtration - separates insoluble solids from a liquid
Chromatography – separates soluble solids from each other based on their solubility and mass
Distillation – separates miscible (can be mixed) liquids from each other OR separates soluble solids from liquids.

Chromatography
Distillation
Example question: Which of these is best to separate a mixture of salt and water?
a. Distillation b. chromatography c. filtration d. Magnets

2.4 States of matter

Sublimation

vaporization

Deposition
You need to know the names of the three states, and the names of the changes.
Vaporization is change from liquid to gas. Evaporation is the change from liquid to gas below the boiling point.
Solids have a definite shape and a definite volume, particles in solid vibrate but don’t move around.
Liquids have an indefinite shape and a definite volume, particles in liquid touch each other but can move
Gases have an indefinite shape and an indefinite volume, particles in gases move around and collide with each other.

Example question: A substance has a indefinite shape and a definite volume, which state of matter is it?
a. Solid b. Liquid c. Gas d. Plasma

2.5 Physical properties

Physical properties are measured without changing the chemical identity of the substance. Bonds are not broken or made.
(e.g H2O(g) H2O(l))
Density – a measure of mass in a area. Density (g/cm3) = mass (g) / volume (cm3)
Boiling point and melting point – the temperature at which a substance changes state
Color, Hardness, conductivity – how well it conducts heat and electricity, malleability – can it be beaten in sheets, ductility
– can it be it pulled in wires.

2.6 Chemical properties – changes when chemical bonds are broken or made. The identity of the chemical changes.
Reactivity – how easy it is for a chemical to change by breaking or making bonds
Flammability – whether a chemical will combust (react with O2 to make energy)

Example question: Which of the following is a chemical property?

a. Density b. color c. Hardness d. Flammability

2.7 Intensive vs extensive properties. An intensive property does NOT depend on an objects mass: all the physical and
chemical properties are intensive.
Extensive properties change depending on the objects mass. – volume, length, weight, etc.

Example question: Which of the following is a intensive property?

a. weight b. size c. density d. volume

Part 3. Periodic table Particle Mass Charge

3.1 Sub-atomic particles Proton 1 +1
An atom is made of three particles – protons, neutrons, and electrons. Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1830 so small -1
The number of protons in an atom is the same as the atomic number. we can say 0
The number of neutrons is mass number minus the atomic number.
The number of electrons in a neutral atom is the same as the number of protons.

Atoms can become ions by either gaining or losing electrons – protons never move.
Gaining electrons makes a negative ion, losing electrons makes a positive ion.
The charge of the ion is the number of protons minus the number of electrons.

Example question: An ion has 10 protons, 8 neutrons, and 12 electrons. What is it’s charge?
a. 0 b. -2 c. +2 d. +30
3.2 Organization of the periodic table

The periodic table is organized into groups (down ) and periods (across ). For example group 16 period 4 is Se.
You need to remember the names of the different families and their locations. They often ask about the metalloids (also
called semimetals)

Example question: Which of the following is a metalloid?

a. Boron b. selenium c. magnesium d. bromine

3.3 Metals, metalloids, and non-metals. You need to know the common properties of the metals, metalloids, and non-
metals.

Class Melting and Luster Conductivity Ductility (pull Malleability

boiling point (shininess) into wires) (beat into
sheets)
Metal High Yes High Yes Yes

Metalloid Some high, Some yes, some Semi-conductors No No

some low no
Non-metal low no low No No

Example question: Which family has low ductility, low melting point and a low conductivity ?
a. Metal b. Non-metal c. Metalloid d. None

3.4 Charges of ions

EVERY element (atoms only bonded to the same type of atom) has a charge of zero.
You need to know the common changes of the main group ions (group 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18).
Common charge means they can be a different charge but are usually the charge given below.
As well as this zinc is always +2, cadmium is always +2, silver is always +1.
If an atom has more than one possible charge the more electronegative will always be negative. For example in SO 42- the
oxygen is more electronegative so it gets a charge of -2. The sulfur is less electronegative so it gets a charge of +6.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18

Common +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 or -3 -2 or +6 -1 0
charge

Example question: Work out the charge of manganese in potassium permanganate KMnO4?
a. +7 b. -7 c. +6 d. -6
3.5 Core and valance electrons Electrons exist around an atom in energy levels (shells). Each energy level has a maximum
number of electrons it can hold. The electrons is the highest energy level (furthest from the Energy Maximum
nucleus) are called valance electrons. All other electrons are called core electrons. level no. of
For main group elements the number of valance electrons can be determined from the group valance
number. The only exception is helium which is group 18 but has 2 valence electrons. electrons
Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 1st 2
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
2nd 8
Valence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electrons 3rd 18

Electrons fill from the lowest energy level first. So lithium has 3 electrons giving it 2 core and 4th 32
1 valence.
We can write the electrons in shells with commas separating them. For example Ga has 31
electrons making it 2, 8, 18, 3.
Because 4s2 is lower energy than 3d10 (see 3.6) potassium and calcium are exceptions –
K is 2, 8, 8, 1 and Ca is 2, 8, 8, 2.

3.6 Electron configuration We need a way to designate which electron we’re talking out. The energy levels are made of
subshells and there are 4 types – s, p d, and f. Each subshell is made of orbitals, and each orbital can hold 2 electrons.
You need to be able to identify subshells from diagrams of their orbitals.
Subshell No. of Maximum
orbitals no. of
electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
p - orbitals
f 7 14

d - orbitals
We designate using a big number, a letter, and a small number.
f-
Small letter in middle = type of subshell orbitals
2P5 Small high number = how many electrons in the subshell
Big number in front = which energy level
The first energy level has 1s orbital – that’s why it can hold 2 electrons. The second energy level has 1s, 2s and 2p it can
hold 10 electrons and 2 are core electrons, 8 are valance.
The third energy level has 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3d, and 3p - it can hold 28 electrons and 10 are core electrons, 18 are valance.
The fourth energy levels has 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3d, 3p, 4s, 4f, 4d, and 4p - it can hold 60 electrons and 28 are core electrons, 32
are valance.
The fifth, sixth and seventh energy levels add an s, p d, and f orbital each time. s-block p-block
d-block
To identify an elements electron configuration start with hydrogen and
add 1 electron for each element reading top to bottom, left to right.
For example oxygen is 1s2, 2s2, 2p4.

There are three special rules: 1. 4s fills AND empties before 3d. 5s before 4d,
6s before 5d, and 7s before 6d.
2. The 6f block fills after 5d1. i.e neodymium is [Xe] 6s2, 5d1, 4f3
3. You cannot have s2 d4 or s2 d9 , instead they’re s1 d5 or s1 d10. f-block
The order is therefore:
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2, 3d10, 4p6, 5s2, 4d10, 5p6, 6s2, 4f14, 5d10, 6p6, 7s2, 5f14, 6d10, 7p6
Because this is long we can use short electron configuration by using the last noble gas in square brackets – [Ne] 3s2 is Mg.
Example question: Which element has an electron configuration of [Kr] 5s1 4d5?
a. Rubidium b. Niobium c. Molybdenum d. Technetium
3.7 Ionic electron configuration For ionic electron configuration you need to remove electrons for positive ions – just count
left in the periodic table. So neutral Al is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 , and Al3+ is 1s2 2s2 2p6 .
For negative ions add electrons – count right. So neutral Br is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5, and Br-1 is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
4s2 3d10 4p6.
It’s important to remember our rule that 4s fills AND empties before 3d. So neutral Ti is [Ar] 4s2 3d2, and Ti2+ is [Ar] 3d2.
Example question: Nickel2+ has an electron configuration of:
a. [Ar] 4s2 3d8 b. [Ar] 4s1 3d9 c. [Ar] 4s2 3d6 d. [Ar] 3d8

3.8 The Pauli Exclusion principle and Hund’s rule

Electron are negative and negative charges repel each other. However electrons can spin up or down. Pauli’s exclusion
principle says 1 orbital can hold 2 electrons – one spinning up, and one spinning down.

Hund’s rule says that electrons will fill an empty orbital of

the same subshell before a half filled subshell.

Example question: Which is the correct electron

configuration of nitrogen

1s2 2s2 a 2p3 1s2 2s2 b 2p3 1s2 2s2 c 2p3 1s2 2s2 d 2p3
3.9 Atomic radii The atomic radii is the distance of the nucleus to the outer electron – the size of the atom.
Atomic radius increase as you go down and left of the periodic table.
It gets bigger down because each period adds one electron shell.

Atomic radius decreases as you go

across the period because the
number of protons increases but
the number of energy levels stays
the same. This means the nucleus
has a greater pulling force on it’s outside shell – pulling the electrons closer.

Example question: what happens to atomic radii across the period?

a. Gets smaller because the number of protons increases
b. Gets smaller because the number of electrons increases
c. Gets bigger because the number of protons increases
d. Gets bigger because the number of electrons increases Boron –
Lithium – Beryllium – 5 protons 2 shells
3.10 Ionic radii 3 protons 2 shells 4 protons 2 shells
Positive ions lose electrons and get smaller. This is because you have the same number of protons and fewer electrons so
the positive protons hold on tighter to the remaining negative electrons.
Negative ions gain electrons and get bigger. This is because you have the same number of protons and more electrons so
the positive protons can’t hold each negative electrons as tightly.
In isoelectronic ions (ions with the same total number of electrons) the most positive one will be smallest, and the most
negative one will be largest.
Example question: Which of these isoelectronic ions has the largest radius?
a. S2- b. Cl1- c. K1+ d.Ca2+
3.11 1st ionization energy Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove 1 electron for an atom to make it a positive
ion. The ionization energy increases as you go up and right in the periodic table. This is the opposite of the trend in atomic
radius and for the same reason. More protons and fewer shells makes it harder to pull away an electron from an atom.
So as the atom get smaller it is hard to take away an electron, therefore it requires more energy.
Far from the nucleus –
Example question: Rank the following elements in order easy to remove
of increasing ionization energy (smallest to biggest):
S, Cl, K, Ca Close to the nucleus –
hard to remove
a. S, Cl, K, Ca
b. Ca, S, K, Cl
c. Cl, Ca, S, K
d. K, Ca, S, Cl
3.12 Electronegativity Electronegativity is a measure of an atoms ability to attract an electron. It’s trend is the same as
ionization energy and for the reason. More protons and fewer shells gives the nucleus a greater attractive force which
gives it a higher electronegativity.
Far from the nucleus –
Example question: Rank the following elements in order
hard to attract a new
of increasing electronegativity energy (smallest to biggest):
electron
S, Cl, K, Ca
Close to the nucleus –
a. S, Cl, K, Ca b. Ca, S, K, Cl
easy to attract a new
c. Cl, Ca, S, K d. K, Ca, S, Cl
electron
4.0 Chemical bonding
Atoms bond together by connecting charges. Positive attracts negative.
4.1 Ionic bonding
In ionic bonding electrons are transferred – one atom takes the valance electrons of another atom. The negative charge
of the anion (negative ion) and the positive charge of the cation (positive ion) then attract each other.
When we make an ion the final charge of the ionic compound is always neutral. For example K +1 and Cl-1 make KCl
because +1 + -1 = 0. But K+1 and S-2 make K2S. Because (+1 * 2) + -2 = 0 so we need two Ks to balance out 1 S.

An ionic bond is between a metal and non-metal. We usually change the name of the non-metal to end with –ide.

Transition metals have variable charges so we must use roman numerals to show the charge in the names of ionic
compounds. For example FeCl2 is iron(II) chloride, and FeCl3 is iron(III) chloride.
Only use roman numerals for transition metals, not main group elements.
Only use roman numerals for word names, not chemical formulas.
Do not use roman numerals for Ag1+, Zn2+ , or Cd2+ as these always have the same charge.

You are expected to remember the names and formulas of 15 polyatomic ions:
1. Nitrate – NO3-1 6. Phosphate = PO43- 11. Acetate – CH3COO-1
2. Nitrite – NO2 -1 7. Carbonate – CO32- 12. Hypochlorite – ClO-1
3. Sulfate – SO4 2- 8. Bicarbonate – HCO3 -1 13. Chlorite – ClO2-1
4. Sulfite – SO32- 9. Ammonium – NH4 +1 14. Chlorate – ClO3-1
5. Cyanide – CN -1 10. Hydroxide – OH -1 15. Perchlorate – ClO4-1

Ionic compounds make huge lattices of positive and negative ions.

Example question: What is the correct name for Ga(OH)3 ?
a. Gallium hydroxide b. Gallium hydrogen oxygen c. Gallium (III) hydroxide d. hydrogalide

4.2 Covalent bonding – covalent bonds happen between non-metals and non-metals.
Covalent molecules share electrons to fill their valence shell. The number of covalent bonds an atom can form is called its
valancy. Valency is equal to the number of orbitals that have 1 electron in that an atom has. We call 1 electron alone in
an orbital an unpaired electron. For example hydrogen has 1 unpaired – it can make 1 bond. Oxygen has 2 unpaired
electrons – it can make 2 bonds. Nitrogen has 3 unpaired electrons – it can make 3 bonds. Carbon has 4 unpaired
electrons – it can make 4 bonds.

H – 1 unpaired electron H O N C
O – 2 unpaired electrons N – 3 unpaired electrons C – 4 unpaired electrons
2 paired electrons 1 paired electrons Prefix No.
We count the number of each element in a covalent molecule using Greek prefixes.
Mono 1

For example diphosphorous pentaoxide is P2O5. Di 2

Tri 3
Example question: What is the formula of dichloride heptoxide?
a. Cl7O2 b. C2O7 c. Cl2O6 d. Cl2O7 Tetra 4

Penta 5

Hexa 6

Hepta 7

Octa 8

Nona 9

Deca 10
4.3 Lewis diagrams
Lewis diagrams are show how atoms bond. You work out the atoms valency (see 4.2) and it must have exactly that many bonds.
For example nitrogen has a valency of three and therefore must have 3 bonds. At the end of the diagram every atom must
have 8 valence electrons – except hydrogen which must have 2. Atoms can make single bonds (2 electrons), double bonds (4
electrons), or triple bonds (6 electrons).
Common Lewis diagrams Bonding pair Non-bonding pair

Nitrogen Oxygen Hydrogen Hydrogen and Ammonia Water Carbon dioxide

a halide
Notice we need to include both the bonding pairs and non-bonding pairs.
Example question: For the Lewis diagram of PCl3 how many bonding pairs and lone pairs surround the central P atom?
a. 1 bond, 3 lone pairs b. 2 bonds, 2 lone pairs c. 3 bonds, 0 lone pair d. 3 bonds, 1 lone pair

4.4 Valance shell electron pair repulsion VSEPR

Electrons exist in pairs in the valance shell of an atom. Electrons are negative so electron pairs repulse (push away) each other.
This means we can predict the shape of atoms by putting electron pairs as far away from each as possible.
Linear Bent sp3 Trigonal pyramidal Structure Bonding Lone Bond
locations pairs angle
Linear 2 0 180

Bent sp3 2 2 104.5

Bent sp2 Tetrahedral Trigonal planar
Trigonal 3 1 107.5
pyramidal
Bent Sp2 2 1 <120

Tetrahedral 4 0 109.5
Example question: What is the VSEPR structure of a molecule with
3 bonding locations and 1 lone pair? Trigonal planar 3 0 120
a. Trigonal planar b. Linear c. Trigonal pyramidal d. Tetrahedral

4.5 Metallic bonding

Metals bond by losing all of their valance electrons. The positive ions then are then surrounded by a sea of electrons. The
negative electrons are like glue holding the positive cations together. The electrons are free to move everywhere is the
molecule which is why metals are good at conducting electricity and heat.
Metals are also the same everywhere which is why they’re malleable and ductile. You can move the molecules around without
breaking the bonds.
Example question: Which is true of metallic bonding?
a. There is an even sharing of electrons between two atoms.
b. Electrons are transferred from one atom to another to form metal ions.
c. Delocalized valence electrons move throughout an "electron sea".
d. Metal atoms do not bond with one another.

4.6 Properties of metallic, ionic and covalent bonding

Bonding Melting and Conductivity Density Ductility Hardness Solubility
type boiling point and
malleability
Metallic High High High High High No

Ionic High Low as solid Medium No High High

High in solution
or as liquid
Covalent Low Low Low No Low Low
Example question: A compound is slightly soluble in water, isn’t ductile, has a low conductivity, and a low boiling point.
What type of bonding does the compound have?
a. Covalent b. Ionic c. metallic d. Hydrogen

5.1 Moles
Chemists use moles as an easy way to make sure we have the correct ratio of atoms when we do a reaction.
One mole of any substance contains 6.022*1023 atoms or molecules. This is called Avagadro’s number For example 1
mole of argon has 6.022*1023 atoms. 1 mole of hydrogen gas (H2) has 6.022*1023 molecules of hydrogen – there are
1.2044*24 atoms since there are 2 atoms in each molecule.
To calculate moles = mass (g)/ molar mass (g / mol).
The mass is how much of a chemical we have in grams. The molar
mass is the mass number from the periodic table.
We can calculate moles from Avogadro’s number by:
Moles = number of atoms or molecules / 6.022*1023

You need to be able to rearrange these two equations which you

can do using these pyramids

Example question: How many molecules are there in 1.5 moles of oxygen.
a. 6.022*1023 b. 9.033*1023 c. 2.49*10-24 d. 4.01*1023

5.2 Percent composition

Percent composition tells us what percentage mass of an molecule is a certain atom. It is calculated by:
Percent composition = (molar mass of the element * the number of that elements) / Molar mass of the molecule
For example: the percentage mass of oxygen in carbon dioxide (CO2) = (16*2) / (12+16+16) = 73 %
Example question: What is the percentage mass of carbon in glucose (C6H12O6)
a. 40 % b. 50% c. 60% d. 80%

5.3 Empirical formula

The empirical formula of a molecule is the simplest possible ratio of elements in a molecule – like simplifying a fraction in
math. The molecular formula is how many atoms are actually in that molecule. For example glucose has a molecular
formula of C6H12O6 , if we simplify it the empirical formula is CH2O.
We can calculate the empirical formula using the mass or the percent composition of the
atom within the molecule. If it’s a percent composition pretend you have 100g of the
This will let you easily just swap the % symbol for grams.
1. Divide the mass of the atom by the molar mass to get moles
2. Divide the largest number of moles by the smallest number to get the molar ratio.
3. Multiply to the nearest whole number and then multiple every chemical by that ratio.
For example if our ratio of A : B is 1 : 1.25 you need to multiply by 4 giving you A 4B5.
For example a molecule is 27.5% K, 38.7% Mn, and 33.8% O. What is the empirical formula?
1. Swap the percent symbol for grams. 27.5g K, 38.7g Mn, and 33.8g O.
2. Divide mass by molar mass: Moles K = 27.5 / 39 = 0.705 moles.
Moles Mn = 38.7 / 55 = 0.704 moles
Moles O = 33.8 / 16 = 2.11
3. Divide the largest number by the smallest to get the ration. Ratio K : Mn = 0.705 / 0.704 = 1. This means there is a 1
atom of Mn for each atom of K. Ratio K : O = 2.11 / 0.705 = 3. This means the formula is KMnO 3.
Example question: A chemical is 70% Fe and 30% O by mass. What is the empirical formula?
A. FeO B. FeO2 C. Fe2O2 D. Fe2O3
6.0 Chemical reaction types
You need to be able to identify 6 types of reaction. You also need to balance equations and write complete and net ionic
equations.

6.1 Balancing chemical reactions The law of conservation of mass states that atoms are not created or destroyed, only
moved around. To balance a chemical reaction you must have the same number of atoms as reactants as there are
atoms of products. For example: 2H2 + O2 2H2O. Oxygen gas always comes as O2 , since H2O has only 1 oxygen
there must be 2H2O. 2H2O has 4 hydrogens so there must be 2H2.
The large number before the molecule is called the coefficient, the coefficient is the same as the number of moles.
Example question: Balance the following equation: __Fe + __ O2 __Fe2O3
A. 1, 1, 1 B. 2, 2, 3 C. 4, 3, 1 D. 4, 3, 2
6.2 Types of reaction
6.21 Synthesis reactions – 2 or more chemicals combine together to make a bigger chemical. A + B AB
For example 2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
6.22 Decomposition reactions – 1 big chemical breaks down into smaller chemicals. AB A+B
You need to be able to predict the products of decomposition reactions of carbonates (CO 32-) and hydroxides (OH-1).
Carbonates decompose into oxides and carbon dioxide. For example: CaCO3 CaO + CO2
Hydroxides decompose into oxide and water. For example 2NaOH Na2O + H2O.
6.23 Neutralization reaction – acid and base makes a salt and water. You need to remember common acids and bases.
Common acids are: Hydrochloric acid – HCl, sulfuric acid – H2SO4 , nitric acid - HNO3 , phosphoric acid – H3PO4 ,
ethanoic acid CH3COOH.
Common bases are a group 1 or 2 metal and OH-1 for example NaOH, KOH, or Mg(OH)2
For example H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
6.24 Combustion reaction – A combustion reaction is an exothermic reaction with oxygen gas. O2 is always a reactant.
When the reaction is a compound made of hydrogen and carbon the products are carbon dioxide and water.
For example: C4H8 + 6O2 4CO2 + 4H2O
Metals can also combust to make an oxide. For example: 2Mg + O 2 2MgO.
6.25 Precipitation reaction – Aqueous (dissolved in water) reactants react to make at least 1 insoluble solid product.
The precipitate will then fall out of solution.
For example: Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
You need to remember that if a chemical contains at least one of these three types of chemicals it will always be
soluble: Alkali metals (not including hydrogen), nitrate (NO3-1), ammonium (NH4+1)
Example question: Identify the type of reaction: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
A. Synthesis B. Neutralization C. Combustion D. Precipitation

6.26 Redox reaction – Reduction is gaining electrons, oxidation is loss of electrons. In a redox reaction of chemical
gains electrons (reduced) while another loses electrons (oxidized). To identify which is which you need to remember
the rules for oxidation state. Oxidation state is the same as the charge of the atom. See 3.4 for the common charges of
ions.
For example in carbon tetrafluoride (CF4) the carbon has an oxidation state of
+4 and the fluoride has an oxidation state of -1 giving it an overall charge of
zero.
If the compound is a polyatomic ion the total charge will be equal to the
charge of the polyatomic ion. For example in sulfate (SO42-) the charge of the
ion is -2. 4 oxygen's with a -2 charge and 1 sulfur with a +6 charge is equal to –2.
(4 * -2) + 6 = -2
Atoms in covalent bonds can also have uncommon charges, the most electronegative atom will have it’s normal charge
and the other atom will change to match it.
For example oxygen usually has an oxidation state of -2, chlorine usually has an oxidation state of -1. But in ClO2-
oxygen is more electronegative than chlorine so oxygen will be -2, but chlorine will change to +3. +3 + (2*-2) = -1.
Example question: In the following reaction which chemical is reduced – H2 + Cl2 2HCl
A. H2 B. Cl2 C. HCl D. None of the above
Example question: In the following compounds which chlorine has the highest oxidation state?
A. Cl2 B. ClO-1 C. ClO2-1 D. ClO3-1

Oxidation agents and reducing agents – An oxidation reagent reduces itself to reduce other chemicals. An oxidation
agent will gain electrons.
A reducing agent oxidizes itself to reduce others. A reducing agent will lose electrons.
Example question: In the following reaction which chemical is the oxidizing agent – Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2
A. Mg B. Cl-1 C. Mg2+ D. H+1

6.3 Complete and net ionic equations – In ionic equations we break aqueous compounds down into the ions that make
them up. ONLY AQUEOUS COMPOUNDS ARE BROKEN DOWN. Solids, liquids, and gases leave as they are. When you
break down a compound you must put its relevant charge.
For example: 3NaOH(aq) + AlCl3 (aq) 3NaCl(aq) + Al(OH)3(s) – break up the aqueous chemicals. Complete ionic
Becomes 3Na (aq) + 3OH (aq) + Al (aq) + 3Cl-1 (aq)
+1 -1 3+ 3Na+1(aq) + 3Cl-1(aq) + Al(OH)3(s) equation
To make the net ionic equation cross out the parts that haven’t changed charge or state.
3Na+1(aq) + 3OH-1(aq) + Al3+ (aq) + 3Cl-1 (aq) 3Na+1(aq) + 3Cl-1(aq) + Al(OH)3(s)
-1 3+
Becomes - 3OH (aq) + Al (aq) Al(OH)3(s) Net ionic equation
Example question: What is the net ionic equation – AgNO3(aq) + NaI(aq) NaNO3 (aq) + AgI(s)
A. Ag+1(aq) + NO3-1(aq) + Na+1(aq) + I-1(aq) NO3-1(aq) + Na+1(aq) + AgI(s)
+1 -1
B. Ag (aq) + I (aq) AgI(s) C. NO3-1(aq) + Na+1(aq) NaNO3(aq)
D. No net ionic reaction
7.0 Stoichiometry – Chemists need to know how much reactant or product we can expect to make. We call this
stoichiometry.
7.1 Stoichiometry calculations If we know the mass of 1 chemical in a reaction we can calculate the mass of all the other
chemicals in the reaction.
Step 1: Write a balanced chemical reaction
Step 2 : Use the mass / molar mass to calculate the moles of reactant
Step 3: Divide the moles of reactant by the coefficient in the balanced chemical reaction.
Step 4: Multiply this number by the coefficient of product – this is the moles of product
Step 5: Multiply moles or product by its molar mass – this is the mass.

For example: you have 84g of iron and excess oxygen, how much
Fe2O3 can you make?
Step 1: 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
Step 2: 84 g / 56 g/mol = 1.5 moles
Step 3: 1.5 / 4 = 0.375
Step 4: 0.375 * 2 = 0.75 moles
Step 5: 0.75 moles * 160 g / mol = 120 g
Example question: You react 144g of O2 with excess H2 how much H2O
can you make?
A. 40.5 g B. 81 g C. 162 g D. 324 g

7.2 Limiting reactants Often in a chemical reaction we intentionally use too much of 1 chemical. The chemical we have
too much of is called the excess reactant. The reactant that there isn’t enough of is called the limiting reactant or limiting
reagent. The limiting reactant is the smallest number when you divide the moles by the coefficient – it is not the
reactant with fewest moles, least mass, or smallest coefficient.
The limiting reactant is the reactant that will run out first leaving excess reactants behind.
To calculate the limiting reactant divide the number of moles by the coefficient. The smallest number will be the limiting
reactant.
For example: you react phosphorous with chlorine to make phosphorus trichloride. 2P + 3Cl2 2PCl3
You have 5 moles of phosphorous and 6 moles of chlorine.
5 / 2= 2.5 6 / 3 = 2.0 2.0 < 2.5 so chlorine is the limiting reactant.
You might then need to calculate the mass of product made, just use the limiting reactant in your stoichiometry (see 7.1).
Or you might need to calculate the moles of excess reactant left over. To calculate this work out how many moles are
needed to react with the moles of the limited reactant. Then subtract that number from the number of moles you have.
For example – 6 moles of chlorine needs 4 moles of phosphorus. You have 5 moles of phosphorous. 5 – 4 = 1. You will
have 1 mole left over.
Example question: In the reaction 2S + 3O2 2SO3. You have 50 g of S and 60 g of O2. Calculate the limiting
reagent and then the mass of SO3 you will make.
A. 33 g B. 50 g C. 75 g D. 100 g

7.3 Percent yield in a chemical reaction we never get the mass we would expect from stoichiometry. At the end of
reaction we measure the mass of our product and call this the actual yield. The yield from out stoichiometry calculation
we call the theoretical yield or expected yield. To calculate the percent yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield)*100%.
For example: The theoretical yield for a reaction is 60 g. The actual yield was found to be 45 g. What is the percent yield?
(45 / 60)*100 = 75 %.
You may need to first calculate the theoretical yield yourself.
Example question: 2H2 + O2 2H2O. 40g of O2 is reacted with excess H2. The reaction made 35 g of H2O. Calculate
the percent yield.
A. 39% B. 66% C. 78% D. 98%

7.4 Molarity Molarity is also called concentration, it has the symbol M and the unit moles per liter. It is the measure of
how many moles of solute are in 1 liter of solvent. In chemistry we usually call 1 liter instead 1 decimeter 3.
1 milliliter (ml) = 1 centimeter cubed (cm3). 1 liter (L) = 1 decimeter3 (dm3).
1000 cm3 = 1 dm3.
Molarity is calculated by: Molarity (mol / dm3) =moles (mol) / volume (dm3)
With molarity you need to be very careful with units. They will often give
you the volume in cm3 instead of dm3. If this happens you must first divide
the volume by 1000 to convert the unit.
For example: Calculate the moles in a solution of 200 ml of 0.5 M.
First convert unit: 200 / 1000 = 0.2 dm3
0.5 mol / dm3 * 0.2 dm3 = 0.1 moles
7.4 example question Calculate the mass of NaOH needed to make a 150 cm3 solution of 0.3 mol / dm3.
A. 1.4 g B. 1.8 g C. 2.2 g D. 2.6 g

7.5 Molarity stoichiometry since we can use molarity to calculate moles we can also use it for stoichiometry. This works
the same as stoichiometry in 7.1, but we need to use molarity and volume to find moles instead of mass and molar mass.
For example: A solution of 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol / dm3 of NaOH is needed to neutralize 30 cm3 of H2SO4. Calculate the
molarity of H2SO4.
Step 1: Balance equation H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Step 2: Moles NaOH. 50 / 1000 = 0.05 dm3 0.05 dm3 * 0.1 mol / dm3 = 0.005 mol
Step 3: Divide by coefficient of NaOH = 0.005 / 2 = 0.0025
Step 4: multiply by coefficient of H2SO4 = 0.0025 *1 = 0.0025 moles
Step 5: Convert volume of H2SO4 into dm3: 30 cm3 / 1000 = 0.03 dm3
Step 6: Molarity of H2SO4 : 0.0025 mol / 0.03 dm3 = 0.083 mol / dm3

You can also use this to calculate the mass of product by calculating the moles and multiplying by the molar mass.
For example: A solution of 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol / dm3 of NaOH is reacted with excess H2SO4. Calculate the molarity of mass
of Na2SO4 produced.
Step 1: Balance equation H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Step 2: Moles NaOH. 50 / 1000 = 0.05 dm3 0.05 dm3 * 0.1 mol / dm3 = 0.005 mol
Step 3: Divide by coefficient of NaOH = 0.005 / 2 = 0.0025
Step 4: multiply by coefficient of Na2SO4 = 0.0025 *1 = 0.0025 moles
Step: Multiply moles Na2SO4 by molar mass. = 0.0025 * 142 = 0.355 g
Example question: 120 cm3 of a solution of 1.5 mol / dm3 KOH is reacted with excess CuSO4 . Calculate the mass of
Cu(OH)2 produced. CuSO4 + 2KOH Cu(OH)2 + K2SO4.
A. 2.2 g B. 4.4 g C. 8.8 g D. 11 g

Answer Key
1.1 D
1.2 B

2.1 D
2.2 1 – element, 2 – mixture, 3 – compound, 4 – mixture, 5 – element, 6 – element
2.3 A
2.4 B
2.6 D 6.1 D
2.7 C 6.2 B
6.26 1. B
3.1 B 2. D
3.2 A 3. D
3.3 B 6.3 B
3.4 A
3.6 C 7.1 C
3.7 D 7.2 D
3.8 C 7.3 C
3.9 A 7.4 B
3.10 A 7.5 C
3.11 D
3.12 D

4.1 A
4.2 D
4.3 D
4.4 C
4.5 C
4.6 A

5.1 B
5.2 A
5.3 D