CHAPTE R 8

Utilization of Aromatic Plants and

Derived Products Chap title

KEY WORDS
CONTENTS
8.1. Introduction 8.3. Toxicity of Essential Oils Vetiver Oil (Khus Oil)
Importance of Aromatic Plants 8.4. Utilization of Aromatic Plants Sandalwood Oil
8.2. Impact of Industrialization Mentha Oil Lemon Grass Oil
Volatile Oil Eucalyptus Oil
Essential Oils Geranium Oil

8.1. INTRODUCTION KEY TERMS

Aromatic plants are plants that possess aromatic compounds, most of which are essential Volatile oil ...........................98
oils which are volatile in room temperature. These compounds are synthesized and stored Essential oils ......................98
in a special structure called gland, which is located in different parts of plant such as leaves, Utilization .........................100
flowers, fruits, seeds, barks and roots. These essential oils can be extracted by various physical
and chemical processes, such as steam distillation, maceration, expression, enfleurage Toxicity .............................100
and solvent extraction. They are mainly used as flavours and fragrances. However, from
ancient times, these plants have been used as raw materials for cosmetics, pharmaceuticals,
botanical pesticides, etc.

Importance of Aromatic Plants

Aromatic plants can be divided into four groups based on how they are utilized, viz.
■ As raw materials for essential oils extraction: This is the major use of aromatic plants and is
the one dealt with in this aromatic plant.
■ As spices: These are plants in which their nonleafy parts are used as a flavouring or season-
ing.
■ As herbs: These are plants in which their leafy or soft flowering parts are used as a flavour-
ing or seasoning.
■ Miscellaneous group: These are aromatic plants used in some ways other than the ones
mentioned above, e.g. as medicines, cosmetics, dyes, air fresheners, disinfectants, botani-
cal pesticides, herbal drinks/teas, potpourri, insect repellents, etc.
People have made extensive use of aromatic plants from time immemorial. The Egyptian,
the Persian and the Babylonian were known to grow and use aromatic plants in making
perfumes and other scented waters from a distillation of rose petals and orange blossoms.
Oriental people were also fond of aromatic plants. These aromatic plants were grown in
the palace compounds and used as raw materials to make perfumes, scented water and a
dozen of other aromatic products.

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 98 Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry

phenolics and sulphur- and nitrogen-containing material.

8.2. IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION Common terpenes include limonene, which occurs in most
The techniques of essential oils extraction from aromatic citrus oils and the antiseptic pine, found in pine and terpene
plants have been known for thousands of year. These oils. Important sesquiterpenes include chamazulene and
essential oils have been used in home-made perfumes, farnesene, which occur in chamomile oil and which have
scented water, traditional medicine, etc. These plants been widely studied for anti-inflammatory and bactericidal
were normally grown in the backyard and collected for properties.
use whenever there was a need. With the advance of The extensive occurrence of ester in essential oils
industrialization through large-scale production and modern includes linalyl acetate, which is a component of bergamot
facilities for processing and utilization, aromatic plants and lavender, and geranyl acetate that is found in sweet
and their products have become very popular. However, marjoram. Other common esters are the bornyl, eugenyl and
as production costs become more and more expensive, lavandulyl acetate. The characteristic fruity aromas of esters
it is necessary to come up with practical solution, i.e. the are claimed to have sedative and fungicidal properties.
invention of synthetic compounds that are almost the same Aldehydes are also clamed to have sedative properties,
as natural materials. This has considerably reduced the use the most common being citronellal and neral found in
of natural flavour and fragrant materials. lemon scanted oils; citral also has antiseptic properties.
Equally pungent to the aldehydes in many instances are the
Volatile Oil ketones, such as jasmone and funchone found in jasmine
and fennel oil, respectively. Ketones, such as camphor,
A substance of oily consistency and feel, derived from a
carnone, methone and pine comphone, found in many
plant and containing the principle to which the odour and
proprietary preparations are effective in upper respiratory
taste of the plant are due (essential oils), in contrast to a
tract complaints. However, some ketones are also among
fatty oil, a volatile oil evaporates when exposed to the air
the more toxic components of essential oils, and are found
and thus is capable of distillation It may also be obtained
in pennyroyal and buchu.
by expression or extraction as many volatile oils identical
The alcohol within essential oils is generally nontoxic.
to or closely resembling the natural oils can be made
Commonly occurring terpene alcohols include citronellal
synthetically. This is also known as ethereal oil.
found in rose, lemon and eucalyptus, also geramnial,
The essential oils industry was traditionally a cottage
borneol, farnesol, menthol, nerol and linalool occurring [AQ 1]
industry in India. Since 1974, a number of industrial
in rose wood and lavender. Alcohol has antiseptic and
companies have been established for large-scale production
antiviral properties, and in aromatherapy, they are claimed
of essential oils, oleo resins and perfume. The essential
to have an uplifting quality.
oils from plants being produced in India include ajwain
A wide range of oxides occur in essential oils including
oil, cedar wood oil, celery oil, citronella oil, davana oil,
ascaridole, bisabolol and bisabolene oxides and linalool [AQ 2]
eucalyptus oil, geranium oil, lavender oil, lemon grass oil,
oxide from hyssop. The most important oxide, however, is
mentha oil, palmarosa oil, patchouli rose oil, sandalwood
cineole. Also known as eucalyptus oil, it occurs extensively
oil, turpentine oil and vetiver oil. The manufacture of
in other oils such as bey laurel, rosemary and cajuput. It is
turpentine oil and resin from pine is a sizable and well-
used medicinally for its expectorant properties. Utilization
established industry in India having 10,000–25,000 tones
of essential oils in different industries has been summarized
annual production of the oil—α-pinine and δ-3-carene being
in Figure 8.1.
two vital components produced from the oil. α-Ionone from
lemon grass oil for perfumery and β-ionone for vitamin A Indian scenario
synthesis are produced in India. Before 1960, menthol was
not produced in India but the introduction of Japanese mint, India is one of the few countries in the world having varied
Mentha arvensis and subsequent improvements therefore agro climatic zones suitable for the cultivation of a host of
enabled India to produces over 500 tones of menthol, and essential oils bearing plants. Due to increased awareness
now tops the world market in export of natural menthol. of health hazards associated with synthetic chemicals
Although the production of major oils is highly organized coupled with the increase coast of petroleum products,
as a number of developing countries have volatile oil rich the use of essential oils has been gradually increasing. The
flora not fully utilized or cultivated. consumers are showing increasing preference for natural
material over the synthetic. During the last few years
Essential Oils with the spurt in the production of essential oils, it is
emerging as a potential agro-based industry in India. At
The chemical components of essential oils can be divided
present in India about 30% of the fine chemical used
into two main categories: the hydrocarbon monoterpenes,
annually in perfumes and flavours come from essential
diterpenes and sesquiterpenes, as well as some oxides,
oils. The total consumption of perfumery and flavouring

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 Utilization of Aromatic Plants and Derived Products 99

during 1990–91. The major buyers of Indian essential oils

Insecticide industry Cosmetics and toiletries Dental preparation
being Russia, United States, France, UK, Netherlands, UAE,
Saudi Arabia, Spain, Morocco, Germany, Australia, Pakistan,
Motor industry Medical Korea, Taiwan, etc. Similarly, citronella oil production has
reached 500 tons when it was totally imported 55 years
Essential oil
ago. Also jasmine and tuberose concentrate from South
Paint industry Food beverages
India have created a marks in world marked. Thus, an
interesting scenario in the development of natural essential
Petroleum industry Tobacco industry oils in India has enraged.

Textile industry
World scenario
Paper and printing industry Adhesives
India ranks 26th in import and 14th in respect of export
FIG. 8.1 Utilization of essential oils in world in the trade of essential oils. United States, France
and Germany are the top three countries in the world in
material in India is abut 3800 MT/annum valued at the trade of essential oils. India holds around 7% of import
Rs 100 crore. Food, dental, pharmaceutical flavours share and 1.1% of export. The values of export from India during
is around 700 MT, and the rest represents perfumery. The 1991–92 to three major countries like United States, France
estimated production of perfumery raw material is around and Germany have been to the tune of Rs 21.2 crore with
500 tones/annum valued at Rs 400 crore. According to Trade major share going to the United States (Rs 8.2 crore) and
Development Authority of India, the total production of France (Rs 7.39 crore).
fragrance excluding formulation for captive consumption by The world trade in essential oils and its product is vast,
the user industry is about Rs 120 crore/annum. A number and the oils of major importance are aniseed, citronella,
of essential oils form palmarosa, citronella, ginger grass, clove, geranium, lemon grass, peppermint oil, patchouli,
basil, mint, lemon grass, eucalyptus, cedar wood, lavender sandalwood, vetiver, mint oil, lemon grass, palmarosa,
oil, davana oil, celery seed oil, fennel and other oils have etc.
been widely used in a variety of products in India. Out of
these the essential oils currently being produced in India Future demand
are oil of citronella, lemon grass, basil, mint, sandalwood, Approximately 90% of the present requirement of essential
palmarosa, eucalyptus, cedar wood, vetiver and geranium. oils in the country is met by the indigenous production
Rose oil, lavender, davana oil, oil of khus and ginger grass and 10% from import. In 1950, the production was hardly
are produced in small quantities. During last forty year, 7580 tones, which has since been rising to 8000 tones.
the importance of developing essential oils bearing plants This has been both vertical and horizontal growth in the
is being increasingly realized. With the introduction of production of essential oils. Peppermint, spearmint and
Japanese mint and subsequent improvement there upon, other mint oil constitute 68% of total volume of production
India produces 5000 tones of menthol valued at Rs 100 of essential oils in the country. Other important varieties
crore and is one of the leading menthol-producing country. which constitute 28% of the total production are basil
Presently, the areas under mint cultivation are estimated to oil, citronella oil, eucalypts oil, lemon grass, palmarosa,
be around 40,000 hectares, mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and sandalwood and vetiver oil. The annual growth rate
Haryana and to some extent in Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. of pharmaceutical industry in terms of volume and value
The export of essential oils during the year 1991–92 has is expected to be between 11% and 13% in the next five
been Rs 53.6 crore as against Rs 40 crore during the year years. The other important sector showing rapid expansion
1990–91, thereby registering an increases of 37% over is the processed food industry particularly ice cream and
the last year. An amount of Rs 61 crore has been saved confectionery items. Fragrance finds use in toiletries and
in foreign exchange annually by means of production of personal care products. Volume wise toiletries constitute
certain oils of mint, aromatic grass, linalool, geranium, 90% of all these products. The annual production of
lavender and rose oil during 1991–92. With the increase toiletries has been estimated by Toilet Makers Association
in production of above essential oils, it would be possible from 3.5 lakh tones in 1991 to 4.8 lakh tones in 1995, at
for the country to save more valuable foreign exchange in an annual growth rate of 8%. The requirement of essential
the coming years. oils by consumer industries under fragrances, flavour and
The magic items of export are ginger oil, sandalwood oil, aroma chemicals are 60%, 20% and 20%, respectively.
lemon grass oil, jasmine oil and other essential oils. During The association of essential oils manufactures estimated
the year 1991–92, export of sandalwood oil has registered growth in export value from Rs 50 corer in 1991–92 to
a recorded figure of Rs 13 crore compared to Rs 6.2 crore Rs 125 corer in 1995–96. India ranks 14th in the world

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 100 Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry

export trade, and its share being at an average 0.6–0.8% of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir,
the total. These are an ample room for penetration into the and Central India. It contains about 80% of l-menthol. It
foreign market especially to the newly developing countries is also cultivated in Japan, Brazil and California.
of the middle and for east. They are colourless or pale yellow liquid; strong and
penetrating odour and taste is pungent and sensation of
Export of major essential oils from India a cool feeling when air is drawn into the mouth.
Mentha oil contains chiefly l-menthol to the extent of
Mentha arvensis and mint oil, cedar wood oil, clove oil, 70% in free, as well as, in the form of esters, depending upon
eucalyptus oil, tuberose concentrate, palmarosa oil, variety (like American, Japanese, Indian). American mentha
patchouli oil, sandalwood oil, lemon grass oil, davana oil contains 80% menthol while Japanese oil contains 70–
oil, coriander oil, dill oil, spearmint oil, rose oil, Mentha 90%. Other important constituents of the peppermint oil
piperita, jasmine concentrate, Jasmine oil. are menthone, menthofuran, jasmone, menthyl isovalerate,
menthyl acetate and several other terpenes derivatives. The
8.3. TOXICITY OF ESSENTIAL OILS other terpene includes 1-limonene, isopulegone, cineole,
pinene, camphene, etc. jasmone and esters are responsible
With the latest therapeutic trend towards aromatherapy and for pleasant flavour, while menthofuran causes resinification
excessive use of essential oils under the labels of natural and develops dirty smell.
products, the knowledge of toxicity of essential oils has
become important to avoid their abusive use. Utilization of mentha oil and derived products
As a general rule, the acute toxicity of essential oils by
1. Carminative.
the oral route is low or very low; e.g. many of the oils used
2. Spasmolytic.
have an LD50 between 2 and 5 g/kg body weight (e.g. anise,
eucalyptus and clove) and for most of them greater than 3. Mild antidiarrhoeic.
5 g/kg body weight (e.g. chamomile, citronella, lavender, 4. Aromatic stimulant.
marjoram and vetiver). Other oils have further low LD50 5. Cholagogue.
between 1 and 2 g/kg for sweet basil, tarragon, hyssop (1.5 6. In tooth paste preparations as a taste corrector.
g/kg), savoury (1.37 g/kg), sassafras (1.9 g/kg), winter green 7. The oil is used for flavouring in pharmaceuticals,
(0.9–3.25 g/kg), chenopodium (0.25 g/kg), thuja (0.83 g/ dental preparation, mouth washes, cough drops, soaps,
kg), pennyroyl (0.4 g/kg) and mustard oil (0.34 g/kg). chewing gum.
A review of the available literature shows that serious 8. It is widely used in flatulence, nausea and gastralgia.
accident involves the young children, due to the ingestion
9. The oil has mild antiseptic and local anaesthetic
of oils such as clove (eugenol) eucalyptus, pennyroyl
properties.
(pulegone), winter green (methyl salicylate deadly) and
10. It is used externally in rheumatism, neuralgia,
parsley (apiol) in large quantity.
congestive, headache and toothache.
The chronic toxicity of essential oils is also not well
known at least for uses, such as aromatherapy as well as 11. The menthol is antipruritic and used on the skin or
for any other route of administration as the doses in which mucous membrane as counter-irritant, antiseptic and
they are used are too low for chronic toxicity. stimulant. Internally, it has a depressant effect on the
At present in India about 30% of the fine chemicals heart.
used annually in perfumes and flavour are obtained 12. The menthol is used in food industries such as liquor,
from essential oils. The total consumption of perfumery soda, syrup, confectionary (candy, chewing gum and
and flavouring materials in India is about 4800 metric chocolate).
tonne/annum. The food technology, oral hygiene and 13. The menthol is used in cosmetic preparation like
pharmaceutical flavour share around 900 metric tonnes shaving cream, tooth paste, lotion, deodorant and
and rest represents perfumery. aftershave lotion, etc.

Eucalyptus Oil
8.4. UTILIZATION OF
AROMATIC PLANTS It is a volatile oil obtained by steam distillation from fresh
leave Eucalyptus globules and other species of eucalyptus
Mentha Oil (Family: Myrtaceae). It should contain not less than 65%
of cineole.
The oil is obtained by stream distillation of the fresh flowering
It is indigenous to Australia and Tasmania. It is cultivated
tops of the plants known as Mentha piperita Linn; Mentha
in the United States (California), Spain, Portugal and in
arvensis var. piperascens (Japanese Mint; Family: Labiatae).
India. E. citriodora, known as citron scented or lemon
Mentha oil is commercially cultivated in Uttar Pradesh,

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 Utilization of Aromatic Plants and Derived Products 101

scented gum, is grown on large scale basis in Kerala, Tamil CH3 CH3
Nadu and other states.
The odour of oil is aromatic and camphoraceous. It
is colourless or pale yellow liquid, having pungent and
CH2OH CH2OH
camphorous taste followed by the sensation of cold. It is
soluble in 90% alcohol, fixed oils, fats and in paraffin.
H3C CH3 H3C CH3
Eucalyptus oil chiefly contains cineole, also known as
Beta-citranellol Geraniol
eucalyptol. It also contains pinene, camphene and traces
of phellandrene, citronellal, gallotannins, methyl ester of
p-coumaric acid, and cinnamic acid in combined form. Utilization of geranium oil
Citriodorol (from E. citriodora): It also contains small
quantity of butyric, valerenic and caproic aldehyde. 1. As a flavouring agent for creams, lotions, soap,
perfumes and other products. It is also used in
alcoholic, nonalcoholic beverages, candy and other
dairy products at 0.001%.
2. The oil is used in the treatment of inflammation, with
its mild soothing effect.
3. It is a stimulant of the adrenal cortex and can be used
to balance the production of androgens which occurs
during the menopause.
4. The oil is good insecticide.
Utilization of eucalyptus oil
1. Eucalyptus oil is used as a counter-irritant, an antiseptic
Vetiver Oil (Khus Oil)
and expectorant. It is obtained by steam distillation from roots of the plant
[AQ 3] 2. Antibacterial and antituberculosis (citriodorol). of Vetiveria zizanioides Stapf (Family: Gramineae).
3. Diaphoretic. The plant is found growing in India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka
4. It is used to relieve cough and in chronic bronchitis and East and West Africa. It is cultivated in Indonesia,
in the form of inhalation. Caribbean Islands, Malaysia and the United States. In
5. Solution of eucalyptus oil is used as nasal drops. India, it is found abundant in Punjab, Rajasthan, Kerala,
6. It is used in infections of the upper respiratory tract, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
malaria and certain skin diseases, in ointment for Cultivation of vetiver grass is done by sowing the seeds
burns and as mosquito repellent. or from slips. A well-drained sandy loam is most suitable
7. If mixed with an equal amount of olive oil, it is useful for cultivation. The temperature ranging from 25–38°C
as a rubefacient for rheumatism. and rainfall of 100–200 cm are desired. It thrives best in
marshy places and humid climate. Planting of slips is done
Geranium Oil just before the outbreak of monsoon. The distance between
two plants and between two rows is approximately 2.5
Geranium oil is obtained by steam distillation of the cm. Proper arrangements for irrigation must be made after
tender parts of the plants of various species like Pelargonium rainy season is over. Fertilizers and manures are provided
(Geraniaceae) (P. graveolens, P. capitatum and P. odoratissium to produce sturdy grass and roots. The grass attains the
Linn). height of 1–1.5 metre above the guard. When the plant
It is indigenous to South Africa and cultivated in Algeria, is about 15–18 months of age, the roots are collected by
Morocco, Spain, France and Italy. Indian geranium oil is uprooting in dry months of the year. If necessary, digging
obtained from other species and is known as palmarosa is done for collection of roots. The drug is slashed, cut into
oil.
small pieces and used for extraction of oil.
All varieties of geranium generally contain 0.08–0.4%
Colour of oil is light brown to deep brown or green
of fragrant volatile oil. Geranium oil contains two types
and odour is characteristics. It is soluble in fixed oil and
of constituents, i.e. alcohol and esters. The alcohols are
alcohol.
β-citranellol and geraniol about 60–70% of the oil. While
The vetiver oil mainly contains alcohol (45–60%),
esters namely geranyl geranyl-tiglate, citronellyl formate
i.e. vetivenol, vetiverol, and 8–35% ketone namely
and citranellyl acetate contribute about 20–30% oil. Several
3-vetivones. Indian vetiver oil contains khusal, khusitol [AQ 4]
sesquiterpenes alcohols are also reported in the oil, and
and khusinol.
are responsible for pleasant fragrance.

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Utilization of vetiver oil 5. Sandalwood oil and sandalwood are considered as

cooling, diuretic, diaphoretics and expectorant drugs.
1. It is used as stimulant, refrigerant, flavouring agent, 6. It is very gentle antiseptic and diuretic and is useful
aromatic, stomachic and in the treatment of prickly in urinary problem like cystitis.
heat or itches.
2. It is used as antiseptic, antispasmodic and Utilization of sandalwood
rubefacient.
3. It is also used in burns, sores and as diaphoretic. 1. Sandalwood is used for preparing several articles such
4. It is also used in preparation of sherbet, soap, perfumery as small boxes, cabinet panels, combs, book mark,
and toilet preparations and as a fixative of volatile walking stick, pen-holder, card cases, paper cutter,
oils. picture frames, etc.
2. Sawdust from heartwood is mostly used as incense
Sandalwood Oil for scenting cloths and cupboards, and for stuff in
pincushions.
Sandal wood oil is obtained by distillation of dried
3. Fine powder of sandalwood is used as a cosmetic.
heart wood from the plant Santalum album Linn (Family:
Santalaceae).
The sandal tree is available in India and Malaya. In India,
Lemon Grass Oil
the trees are available in Tamil Nadu, Mysore, Maharashtra, Lemon grass oil is the oil distilled from Cymbopogon flexuosus
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Rajasthan Stapf or from C. citrates Staf (Family: Gramineae).
and Gujarat. Lemon grass oil is a reddish yellow or brown. It has
Sandalwood oil is yellowish and pale reddish viscous odour resembling that of lemon oil. It is almost entirely
liquid. It has strong fragrance, taste is slightly bitter. soluble in 70% alcohol; the solubility gradually decreases
Sandalwood oil contains mixture of two isomers α- and on storage.
β-santolol (90%), α and β-santalene, santalone, santanone, Lemon grass oil mainly contains citral and citronellal
isovaleraldehyde, α- and β-santalic acids, etc. (75–85%). The other terpene is geraniol, nerol, linalool,
methyl heptenol, limonene, etc.; beta-ionone is derived
Utilization of sandalwood oil from citral.

1. Oil is used as perfuming agent in various cosmetic Utilization of lemon grass oil
preparations and incense sticks.
2. It is used for wound and blisters caused by small pox 1. It is used as flavouring and perfuming agent.
vaccination, gonorrhoea, cough and dysuria. 2. It is also used as a mosquito repellent.
3. It is used as a source of citral for the preparation of
3. Sandalwood oil along with neem oil is used as a
beta-ionone.
contraceptive.
4. The β-ionone is used as precursor of vitamin A.
4. Sandalwood oil along with double quantity of mustard
5. The oil is used in perfumery, soaps and cosmetics.
oil used for treatment for pimples on the nose.

[AQ 1]: ‘Fornenesol’ has been changed to ‘Farnesol’ please check.

[AQ 2]: ‘Bisaleolone’ has been changed to ‘bisabolene’ please check.
[AQ 3]: Please check if ‘citriodorol’ is correct.
[AQ 4]: Please confirm if ‘Khusal, Khusitol and Khusinol’ is correct.

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