Ecology and Evolution

Lecture 13
Microevolution
 Population Genetics
◼ Study of genes and genotypes in a
population

◼ Natural selection Occurs in Populations

Not Individuals

◼ investigate the pattern of genetic

variation found among individuals within
a group and how these patterns vary
geographically and change over time.

1. extent of genetic variation,

2. why it exists
3. how it is maintained
4. how it changes (if it changes) over the
course of many generations

◼ A gene pool consists of all the alleles for all loci in

a population

◼ Different alleles results variations in their traits

◼ Each individual only has a small fraction of the

alleles present in the population’s gene pool
 Genes: Basic Unit of Heredity
◼ Each gene is composed of a unique set of
nucleotides

◼ A gene is a segment of DNA located in a

specific site on a specific chromosome
that contains information for producing a
particular protein (polypeptide).

◼ A genes can be as short as 1000 base pairs

or as long as several hundred thousand
base pairs. It can even be present in more
than one chromosome.

◼ A gene carries biological information in a

form that must be copied and transmitted
from each cell to all its progeny.

◼ Humans have ~25,000 predicted genes

◼ Check for yourself

@[Link]
 Alleles
◼ Alleles are different versions of the
same gene that can lead to variations
in a particular trait.

◼ These alternative versions of a gene

are called alleles

◼ For example, eye color is determine

by different alleles.

◼ Alleles govern the same character

but do not necessarily contain the
same genetic information (DNA
sequence is different)

◼ Let's say we're talking about a gene

that determines shoe style, and this
gene has different alleles that
correspond to various types of shoes.
 Homologous Chromosomes
◼ Homology is any similarity between
quality

◼ So, homologous pairs of

chromosomes are similar but not
identical

◼ Both carry gene for eye color but

one may have brown and the other
blue

◼ Homologous chromosomes are

pairs of chromosomes in a diploid
organism that have the same genes
at the same loci but may have
different alleles.
Homozygous vs Heterozygous
◼ Individuals with identical alleles (e.g., genotypes SS and
ss) are said to be homozygous for that gene, because all
their gametes will have the same allele for this trait.

◼ Individuals with different alleles (e.g., Ss) are

heterozygous, because 1⁄2 of their gametes will contain
one allele, and 1⁄2 the other
 Dominant and Recessive Alleles
◼ A DOMINANT Allele (always upper
case letters-i.e. AA or Aa)
◼ an allele that masks the
presence of another
different allele
◼ A recessive Allele (always lower
case letters-i.e. aa):
◼ an allele whose presence is
masked (hidden) by a
Dominant allele
 Genotype Vs Phenotype
Genotype
◼ Refers to the specific set of genes an
individual has for a particular trait

◼ For example, if we're talking about

hair color, your genotype might be
"BB" (two dominant alleles for black
hair) or "Bb" (one dominant black
allele and one recessive brown
allele).

Phenotype
◼ This is the physical appearance or the Genotype Phenotype
observable characteristics that result
from the genotype. It’s how the trait
actually shows up. BB Black

◼ For example, if your genotype is "BB" bb brown

or "Bb," your phenotype would be
black hair. Bb Black
 Microevolution: The Evolution of
Populations
◼ A gene pool consists of all the
alleles for all loci in a population

◼ Different alleles results variations in

their traits

◼ Each individual only has a small

fraction of the alleles present in the
population’s gene pool

◼ Genotype describes the genetic

constitution of an individual, that is
the specific allelic makeup of an
individual
 Microevolution
◼ Microevolution
◼ Is change in the genetic makeup
of a population from generation
to generation

◼ Ex. abandoned mine.

◼ Rich in toxic heavy metals.

◼ While many grass seeds land on

the area, the only plants that •
germinate, grow, and reproduce
are those that possess genes
enabling them to tolerate metallic
soils.

◼ These plants tend to produce metal-

tolerant offspring.
◼ Individual plants do not evolve to
become more metal-tolerant
during their lifetimes.
 Genotype Frequency
◼ The proportion of a particular genotype in the
population

Example: population: 1000 individuals

Genotype Number Percentage Genotype

(%) Frequency

AA 490 49% 0.49

Aa 420 42% 0.42
aa 90 9% 0.09
Total 1000 100% 1
 Calculating Allele Frequencies
◼ Proportion of a specific allele in a
population

◼ Example: 1000 individuals (diploid) Genotype Number Genotype Allele

frequency frequency
has 2000 alleles
AA 490 0.49 A= 0.7

490 AA = 980 A alleles Aa 420 0.42 a= 0.3

420 Aa = 420 A allele aa 90 0.09

420 a allele
total 1000 1 1

90 aa = 180 a alleles
Total = 1400 AA and 600 aa

◼ Allele freq of A= 0.7 (1400/2000)

Allele freq of a= 0.3 (600/2000)
 Example
◼ 100 4 o’clock plants
◼ 39 red-flowered plants,
genotype CRCR
◼ 50 pink-flowered plants,
genotype CRCW
◼ 11 white-flowered plants,
genotype CWCW

1. What are the genotype

frequency?

2. What is the allele

frequency of CW?
 Calculations

Genotype Number Genotype Allele frequency

frequency

CRCR 39 0.39 CR= 0.64

CRCW 50 0.20 CW= 0.36

CWCW 11 0.11

total 100 1 1
 Genetic Equilibrium
◼ Alleles & genotypes
frequency do not change
from generation to
generation unless
influenced by outside
factors.

◼ A population whose allele

and genotype freq. do not
change from one generation
to the next is said to be in
Genetic Equilibrium

◼ On the other hand, if allele

frequencies change over
generations, evolution is
occurring
 The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
◼ HW principle of genetic
equilibrium tells us what to
expect when a sexually
reproducing population is NOT
EVOLVING

◼ It states that frequencies of

alleles and genotypes in a
population’s gene pool remain
constant from generation to
generation (no evolution is
occurring) in a population at
genetic equilibrium
 The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
and Allele Frequency
◼ Allele Frequency refers to the relative frequency of a particular allele (variant of a gene) compared to
other alleles at the same genetic locus in a population

◼ By convention, if there are 2 alleles at a locus, p and q are used to represent their frequencies
◼ p+q=1

◼ p = frequency of dominant allele

◼ q = frequency of the recessive allele
◼ It's typically expressed as a fraction or percentage.

◼ The frequency of all alleles in a population will add up to 1

◼ Frequency = 0: allele totally absent from a population

◼ Frequency = 1: all the alleles of a given locus are the same in the population
 Calculating Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium
◼ Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium describes the constant frequency of
alleles in such a gene pool

◼ If p and q represent the relative frequencies of the only two possible

alleles in a population at a particular locus, then

◼ (p + q) x (p + q) = p2 + 2pq + q2
◼ (Allele frequency of male gametes) x (Allele frequency of female gametes)= Genotype frequencies in the next generation

◼ where p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes and

2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous genotype
 Calculating Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium
◼ Consider the same 4 o’clock
plants population but you now
look at 500 individuals

1. How many alleles do we

have?

2. Assuming p= 0.8, Calculate q

3. Calculate the frequency of

each genotypes in this
population

4. How many of each genotype

present
 Calculating Hardy-Weinberg
Equilibrium con’t
1) Two alleles CR and CW
2) Assuming p= 0.8, therefore q=0.2

3) The frequency of genotypes can be

calculated
◼ CRCR = p2 = (0.8)2 = 0.64
◼ CRCW = 2pq = 2(0.8)(0.2) = 0.32
◼ CWCW = q2 = (0.2)2 = 0.04

◼ The frequency of genotypes can

also be confirmed using a Punnett
square
4) How many of each genotype:
◼ 64% of 500 = 320 CRCR,
◼ 32% of 500 = 160 CRCW
◼ 4% of 500 = 20 CWCW
 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
◼ A population must satisfy five conditions if it is
to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

◼ 1) No net mutations: there can be no change in

allelic frequency due to mutation and the alleles
and genotypes frequencies will remain constant
from generation to generation.

◼ 2) Random mating: mating is random in the

population: ex individuals AA, Aa & aa must
select their mates at random, not based on
genotype or any other factor.

◼ Individuals do not choose mates based on

appearance or other traits

◼ Non-random mating is commonly observed

in nature through sexual selection and
would steer the gene pool toward the
desired phenotypes and genotypes (natural
selection).
 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
◼ 3) No natural selection: In a population at
equilibrium, no alleles are selected over other
alleles.
◼ no selection of certain phenotypes &
therefore genotypes.

◼ all individuals in the population have an

equal chance to survive and reproduce,
regardless of their genetic makeup.

◼ 4) Large population: A large breeding

population helps to ensure that chance alone
does not disrupt genetic equilibrium.
i.e. genetic drift

◼ Allele frequencies more likely to change by

random fluctuations (genetic drift) in a small
population than in a large population.

◼ Example: in a population of only a few

individuals, an allele at low frequency could
be completely lost by chance.
 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
◼ 5) No gene flow. Gene
flow, the transfer of
alleles due to the
migration of individuals
or gametes between
populations, will
change the frequencies
of alleles.

◼ Both immigration and

emigration can alter
allelic frequency
Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow
can alter a population’s genetic composition
◼ Although new mutations can modify allele frequencies, the change
from generation to generation is very small.

◼ Recombination reshuffles alleles but does not change their

frequency.

◼ Three major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most
evolutionary change
i. Natural selection
ii. Genetic drift
iii. Gene flow
 i) Natural Selection
◼ Differential success in reproduction
◼ Results in certain alleles being passed to
the next generation in greater proportions

◼ Natural selection can alter the frequency

distribution of heritable traits in three ways,
depending on which phenotypes in a
population are favored.

◼ The three modes of selection are called

1. Directional selection
2. Disruptive selection
3. Stabilizing selection
 1. Directional Selection
◼ Directional selection occurs when a
single phenotype (like fur color in
mouse or coloration in peppered
moths) is favored, causing the allele
frequency to continuously shift in
one direction.

◼ Directional selection is most

common during periods of
environmental change or when
members of a population migrate to
a new habitat with different
environmental conditions.

◼ Over time, the frequency of the

melanic form of the moth increased
because their darker coloration
provided camouflage against the
sooty tree; they had a higher
survival rate in habitats affected by
air pollution.
 2. Disruptive Selection
◼ A mode of natural selection in which
extreme values for a trait are favored
over intermediate phenotypes

◼ Sometimes natural selection can select

for two or more distinct phenotypes that
each have their advantages.

◼ In these cases, the intermediate

phenotypes are often less fit than their
extreme counterparts.

For example lobsters.

◼ Large, dominant alpha males obtain

mates by brute force, while small males
can sneak to mate with the females in
an alpha male’s territory.

◼ In this case, both the alpha males and

the “sneaking” males will be selected
for, but medium-sized males, which
cannot overtake the alpha males and
are too big to sneak copulations, are
selected against.
 3. Stabilizing Selection
◼ If natural selection favors an
average phenotype by
selecting against extreme
variation, the population will
undergo stabilizing
selection.

◼ Example: clutch size

◼ Too many eggs and
offspring die due to lack of
care and food

◼ Too few eggs does not

contribute enough to next
generation
 ii) Genetic Drift
◼ Genetic drift affects the genetic
makeup of the population but, unlike
natural selection, through an entirely
random process.

◼ So although genetic drift is a

mechanism of evolution, it doesn’t
work to produce adaptations.

◼ One allele may be eliminated from

population purely by chance
regardless if beneficial or harmful

◼ Statistically, the smaller a sample the

greater the chance of deviation from a
predicted result

◼ Genetic drift at small population sizes

may occur as a result of two situations:
A. Bottleneck effect
B. Founder effect
 Genetic Drift
A) Genetic Bottlenecks
◼ The bottleneck effect occurs when the
numbers of individuals in a large
population are drastically reduced by a
disaster and then rebuilds.

◼ By chance, some alleles may be

overrepresented and others
underrepresented among the
survivors.

◼ Some alleles may be eliminated

altogether and therefore new
population likely to have less genetic
variation

B) Founder Effect
◼ Small fraction of a population
establishes a new colony, they bring
with them only a small fraction of the
genetic variability in the original
population
 iii) Gene Flow
◼ Gene flow consists of the
movement of alleles among
populations

◼ May cause a population to lose

alleles (loosing genetic variability),
and other population to gain some
(increasing genetic variability)

◼ Gene flow tends to reduce

differences between populations
over time

◼ Gene flow is more likely than

mutation to alter allele frequencies
directly

◼ Can increase or decrease fitness in

a population