FT Hrecticity is the atmost important in the modern world, We depend on it for almost everything in our day to day life. In case of failure of power supply, hospitals, banks offices and private institutions make alternative arrangement with the help of generators. a Electricity is used for running electric furnaces, electric motors and several other instruments used in industries. Q Domestic applicances viz. Firdge, electric oven, mixer, fans, washing machines, vacuum clearer, rotimaker, etc have helped by saving time and labour. All these devices are run on electricity. But some animals also use electricity. eg, fishes-eels use electricity to catch their pray and also for self-defence. Q The excellent example of natural flow of electricity is the lightning that strikes the earth. Q For the generation of electricity, water is released form a dam at a higher level and becuase of gravity, it falls to a lower level Q The direction of the flow of water between points depends on the level of these two points. Potential and Potential Difference : Current Electricity Set up the experiment as Procedure shown in the above figure ‘Then remove the clamp form the rubber tube. When the clamp is removed water starts flowing from the higher level to a lower level. The flow of water stops when the levels of water in the two bottles become equal, because there does not remain pressure difference between levels of bottles of water To keep the water flowing for 2 longer duration, the clamp should be made slightly loose instead of removing it. Just like water, the flow of electric charge between points depends on a kind of electric level in these points. This level is called electric potential. A positive charge flows from a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential. We have seen that electricity flows due to conduction of negatively charged electrons. Electrons flow from the point of lower potential to a point of higher potential. eg. A lightning strike is the flow of electrons from point of (negative) potential on the clouds to the point of higher (zero) potential on the earth. The difference between the values of potentials at two points A and B is called the potential difference between them. A + _ Conducting wire = )8 +ve Charged ~ve Charged conductor conductor Q Equipments : Plastic bottles = 2, rubber tube, clamp, water. In the figure conductor ‘A’ is at a higher potential than conductor B.Current Electricity a When these two conductors are connected by a conducting wire, a potential difference is created between their ends and electrons flow from B to A through the wire. This flow will cotinue until these two conductors A and B have the same potential i.e, potential difference becomes zero. Only then the flow of electorns will stop. Work has to be done against the electric field to take a positive charge from a point of lower potential to a point of higher potential. Potential Difference Cells : a a The difference between the positive and the negative terminals of a cell is the potential difference of that cell. Potential difference is caused by chemical reactions occurring in the cell. The potential difference sets the electrons in motion and results in the flow of the electricity through a conducting wire connected at the two ends of the cell. The amount of work done to carry a unit positive charge from point A to point B is called the electric potential difference between points. Potential difference between points E Work ~ Total charge transferred w vie Q 1 1 ae In SI system the unit of potential didfference is volt. The Italian scientist Alessandro Volta constructed the first electric cell. The unit of potential diffence is named volt in his honour. Large values of potential difference are expressed in the following units. 1 KV (Kilo volt) 1 KV (mega volt) = Very small values of potential differece are expressed in the following units. 1 mV (millivolt) = 103 V 1,V (microvolt) = 1 36 PL Free Electrons : a a a Every atom of a metallic conductor has 9, ©r more outermost electrons which are ve weakly bound to the nucleus. These ;, called the free electrons. These electrons can eas) move from one part of a conductor to ; other parts. The negative charge of the electrons 3), gets transferred as a result of this motion The free electrons in a conductor are 4, carriers of the negative charge. Current Flowing Through a Wire : a If a conducting wire is not connected ; a cell as shown, its free An 4 7 electrons moving randomly“ L \", in all directions in the space sy between the atoms. When we connect th ends of wire to the two terminals of a cd electric force acts on the electrons. Being negatively charged they ste moving from the negative (lower potenti: to the positive (higher potential) terminal’ the cell. tl < < << << ae ae Hi Due to the flow of these electrons, curret starts to slow through the wire. This motion of electrons is irreguli but there is a definite non-zero value ! their average velocity. Electric Current : Qa Q An electric current is the flow of electro through a conductor. Quantitatively, current (I) is defined as tl charge passing through a conductor for! unit time. Even though, electrons move from negati*' end to positive end, conventionally, th direction of current is taken to be opposi of the directions i.e. from the positive e™ e end of the celWe con Sbtain SI GOW OTRO In SI unit of resistance above formula oe Potential difference 108 t Current = and current measured in vote and Ampere respectively, Theva of charge in S1 unit Is coulomb (C), QD The unit of resistance is called Ohm. Toe tat is expreseed in Ampere (A) It is indicated by the symbol charge of one electron is 1,6 «10-19 it 3 the charge on 18 1.6 * 10-19 ¢ Tampere 7 1 Ohm (Q) Ampere? Resistance of one Ohm : If One ampere current is said to flow in a current flows through » consecior aes conductor if one coulomb charge flows one volt potential difference is applied through it every second. between its ends, then the resistance of fe the conductor is one Ohm. TE Resistance and Resistivity of a Conductor : ty The Fréncli mathematiehia and selentist, Q There are a large number of free electrons in ‘Ampere conducted a number of experiments on electricity. Today, we measure the current flowing in a conductor, only because of his extraordinary work. The unit of current is called Ampere in recognition of his great work. Resistance and Ohm's Law : Ohm's Law : a The realationship between the current flowing through a wire (1) and the potential difference across the ends (V) can be obtained from the law given by the German scientist George Simon Ohm. Q Physical state of a conductor means its length, area of cross-section, temperature and the material it is made up of. Q Ifthe physical state of a conductor remains constant, the current (1) flowing through it is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) between its ends. lav I= kV (k = constant of proportionality) ee -Vv i = R= Resistance of the conductor) IR = V v Hence, V = IR or R= 7 Thi known as Ohm's la! a conductor. They are constantly in a random motion. Q When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the conductor, these electrons, start moving from the lower potential end to the higher potential end. Q_— This directional motion of the electrons causes the flow of currents. Q Moving electrons strike to atoms and ions which lie along their path. Such collisions cause hindrance to the flow of the electrons and oppose the current. This hindrance is called the resistance of the conductor. German phisicist, George Simon Ohm established a law of measuring the resistance of a conductor. In his honour, the unit of resistance is called the Ohm. ivity : a Q Atagiven temperature, the resistance (R) of a conductor depends on the length (L), area of cross-section (A) and the material it is made of Q If the resistance of the conductor is R, then : Ral 1 Alo = t @ L Ro ix L r R= Px wn Pisa constant of proportionality and is called resistivity of materialCurrent Electricity Q InST unit, the uni —* PL coe sa the unit of resistivity is | Q i Sotto Path of an electric curry, C8 Q Resistivity isa specific property of a material ugh conducting wires connected to ty, COR and the different materiais have different ends of a cell and other resistances is call, 7 resistivity. an electric circuit. i For example : Q The figure shows how differe, Resistivity of copper components are to be connected in y, = 17*10°Qm circuit, by using special symbols for cay Nicrome = 1.1*10*Qm ‘of the components. Diamond = 1.62 « 10)? to 1.62 x 10° Qm.|@ Ameter is connected in series ay, Electric Circuit : voltameter is connected in parallel. ( x. rersistance) Inthe circuit the Ameter is used to meas, > current and a voltameter to measure th potential difference. Sy + GQ As the voltameter has a very hig ° resistance, only very small current flow L_,@___+ |= through it. G Symbols for components of an Electric Circuit and th Component Symbol Use C Electric cell += [To apply a potential difference between ends of : conductor. Battery (collection —4i|1= | To apply a larger potential difference between ends of a number of cells) (Open tap key or plug key (Closed tap key or plug key Connecting (conducting) wires. Crossing wires of a conductor. To stop the flow of current flowing in a circuit by disconnecting two ends of wire. To start the flow of current into a circuit by connectin: two ends of wires. [fe connect varaoascomponsa incre To show wires which cross but are not connected. Light bulb To test the flow of the electricity; lighted; current * flowing; unlighted current is not flowing. (M) Resistance To control the flow of current in the circuit. Variable resistance =O — < rt wpe -@- -o- Voltmeter To change the resistance as required and there b control the currents. ‘To measure the current flowing in the circuit. to measure the potential difference between point [a“urrent Electricity conductors and Insulators ; } We can divide substances int fo conductoy and insulators (bad conductors), S Conductors : Those substances which have very low resistance are called conductors Insulators : Those substance which have extremely high resistance and through current can not flow are called insulators. Experimental proof of Ohm's Law : (i) The ratio T is found to be constant (ii) The graph betwwen current and potential difference is a straight passing through the origin O. ystem of Resistors and Effective Resistance : | Aresistor is a two ended component having a given amount of resistance between its (two) ends. In several electrical devices a number of registers are connected together in different ways. Ohm's law is applicable to all such connected resistors. esistors in series : +@= Le ae eo R R3 —D | Ry + K E j a 1 The ends of three reistros area connected so that they follow one after the other in a single line. 1 These resistors are said to be connected in series, In such arrangement, the same current flows through each resistor. Q The value of current is I and the potential difference between C and D is V. The three resistors, Ry, Ry and R3 are connected in series in the circuit. Let the voltage across them be V,, V2 and Vs respectively. 39 = PLen ) in the effective resistance D, then according to Ohm's If R, (s for series between C and Law, V= IR, Vi = IRy, Vp = IR; and V3 = IRy, Substituting all these in ecuation (1) we get IR, = IR} IR, + IR, R= RRR Ry If resistors are connected in series ; 1 a The same current flows through each resistor. 2. The effective -esistance of the resistors is equal to the sum of their individual resistances, 3. The potential difference between the extremes of the arrangement is equal to the sum of potential differences across individual resistors 4. The effective rersistance is larger than each of the individual resistances, 5. The arrangement is used to increase the rersistance in a circuit. Q_ When resistors are connected in series, they are connected one after another. If any one of them does not function, the circuit breaks and there is no flow of electricity. Q If two bulbs are connected in series, they will both give less light than if they had been connected individually. If three bulbs are connected in series, their light out put will decrease further. Supper conductor: a Q The resistance of some conductor becomes nearly (0) zero if their temperature is decreased upto a certain value close to 0° K (Kelvin), Such conductors are called super conductors. Some conductors do not obey Ohm's Law, such conductors are called non-ohmic conductors. Resistors in Parallel : Q Resistors are said to be conneced in parallel when their ends are connected at both sides as shown.Current Electricity KE oy—-—___ Q The figure shows three resistors Ry, Rz and R; connected in parallel between points C and D. Q Vis the potential difference between C and D. Q Let Iy, ly, Ig be the currents flowing through R,, Rand R; respectively. Then the total current flowing through the circuit is, I= tbhth (1) Let R, (p for parallel) be the effective resistance between C and D. According to Ohm's Law, 7 1 Re v Similarly, ly = 2, I= 2- and 1y= imilenly, = Bes DR, Substituting these values in equation (1), we get, Vv Vv Vv Re RR wo 1 el Re RR, Ry If n resistors are connected in parallel, i, 1 1 1 wom, 1, DT pies Rp R, RRs Q Even if any one of the several bulbs connected in parallel becomes non- functional because of some damage to its filament, the circuit does not break, and the rest of the bulbs light up. When several bulbs are connected in parallel, they emit the same amount of light as when they are connected individually in the circuit. While bulbs connected in series emit less light than when connected 40 1 5. a PLPy If a Number of Resistors are connected j, Parallel : The number of the effective resistance j, equal to the sum of the inverses y individual resistances. ‘The current flowing through an individug resistor is proportional to the inverse of iy, resistance and the total current flowin, through the circuit is the sum of th currents flowing through _individug resistors. The potential difference across all resistros the same. The effective resistance of resistance connected in parallel is less than the leay resistances of individual resistors. This arrangement is used to reduce thy resistance in a circuit. Domestic Electrical Connections = The electricity in our homes is brough through the main conducting cable eithe from the electric pole or fron underground cables. Usually, there are three wires in the cable. One is called the live wire, which brings in the current, it has a red or brow insulation. The other wire is called neutral wire through which the current returns. It is blue or black. In India, the voltage difference between the live and neutral wires is about 220 V. Both these wires are connected to the electric meter through fuse. ‘Through a main switch, they are connected to all the conducting wires inside the hom: 80 as to provide electricity to every room. In each separate circuit, various electrical appliances are connected between the live and neutral wire: The different appliances are connected it parallel and the potential difference across every appliance is the same. The third wire is called the earth wire and is of yellow or green colour. The earth wire is connected to a metal platé burried deep underground near the hous? and it is for safty purposes. ividually. a a a ys‘Current_BleS TS ____ ire? ‘ Fuse ee wire is used to protect domestic if al pliances- Q_ Fuse is made up of a mixture of substances and had a specific melting point. OQ Fuse is connectd is series to the electric appliances. a. Iffor some reason, the current in the circuit increases excessively, the fuse wire gets heated up and melts. Q The curent gets broken and the flow of current stops, thus protect the appliance. Q__ This fuse wire is fitted in a groove in a body of porcelain like non-conducting material. Q For domestic use, fuse wires with upper Precautions to be taken while using Electiricity : 1. nN limits of 1A, 2A, 3A, 4A, 5A and 10 A are used. Electric switches and sockets should be fitted at a height at which small children cannot reach or put pins or nails inside. Plug wires should not be pulled while removing a plug from the socket. Before cleaning an electrical appliance it should be switched off and its plug removed from the socket. One's hands should be dry while handling an electrical appliance and as for as possible, one should use footwear with rubber soles. As rubber is an insulator, it prevents the current from flowing through our body, thereby protecting it. If a person gets an electric shock, you should not touch that person. You should switch off the main switch and if the switch is too far or you do not know where it is located, then you should remove the plug from the socket if possible. If not, then you should use a wooden pole to push the Person away from the electric wire. >