CDI 1: PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Dactyloscopy (fingerprint identification) – identification of persons through examination

and comparison of fingerprint for practical implication.

PRINCIPLES OF DACTYLOSCOPY

a. Individuality – no two person have the same fingerprint

b. Infallibility- that fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of identification. It

can’t be easily forged

1. Characteristics of fingerprint which are formed by collection of curved, straight,

long, short, and other various friction do not change naturally as the body ages.

2. Fingerprints are unique throughout the world and permanent throughout life.

3. Police agencies throughout the world accepted, adopted and utilized

fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification.

4. No two individual persons have exactly the same fingerprint patterns in their

individual characteristics.

5. The court and other authorities since time immemorial take of its importance

and reliability as a means of identification.

c. Constancy or permanency – that the ridge once fully develop its arrangement

will remain the same throughout man’s life (3-4 months of intra-urine life). The

papillary ridges are immutable, perennial and individual from the third month of
 the embryonic of a person until decomposition set in after death.

Some attempts of destroying ridges and disguised:

1. John Dillinger – US notorious public enemy No. 1, who tried to remove hid

fingerprints with acid but failed. Post-mortem fingerprints was taken when he was

shot by FBI agents proved that he was John Dillinger.

2. Robert James Pitts – gained fame as the man without fingerprints knowing

from an inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints.

3. Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons – who performed experiments on

themselves by burning with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal, had shown that

after healing of the epidermis, the original patterns of fingerprints reappeared.

USES OF FINGERPRINTS

1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found ate the scene of the crime

2. Identification of fugitives through a comparison of fingerprints.

3. Exchanging of criminal identifying information with identification Bureaus of

Foreign Countries in case of mutual interest.

4. Means of personal identification.

5. Identification of unknown deceased.

6. Prevention of hospital mistake in the identification of infants.

7. Licensing procedure for automobiles, firearms, aircraft and other equipment.

 ALLIED SCIENCE OF FINGERPRINTS

1. Chiroscopy – The papillary ridges identification on the palms of the hand. The

palms of the human hands contain minute ridges and furrows that are found to

be peculiar and these peculiarities can aid investigators in establishing the

identity of the suspect. Like fingerprints, palm prints can also be found in the

crime scene.

2. Podoscopy – The science of identification through friction ridge characteristics

existing on the sole of the human foot. Ridge characteristics on the fingers will be

the same as the ridge characteristics found on the sole of the human feet.

3. Poroscopy – Refers to the scientific examination or study of arrangement and

shape of the pores of the friction ridges through which the bodily fluids are

secreted or discharged. The development of this study was credited to Dr.

Edmond Locard of Lyon, France who devoted much of his time in studying

minute opening of the friction ridges. Locard in 1912 asserted that due to its

extensive quantity, same distribution of the number of pores between two

persons is theoretically impossible. Pores follow the same principle of

permanency as of the fingerprint making it as reliable and valid for personal

identification. Locard is known as the Father of Poroscopy

Ridge characteristics

Ridge- the elevated or hill-like structure (the black lines with white dots)

1. Recurving Ridge - a single ridge that curves back to the direction where it started.

2. Ending Ridge - it refers to an abrupt end of a ridge

3. Enclosure or Lake Ridge - a single ridge that divides into two but does not remain open
 and meet at a certain point to form the original single ridge.

4. Sufficient Recurve - a recurving ridge which is complete with its shoulder free from any

appendage.

5. Diverging Ridge - two ridges that split apart

[Link] Ridge - two ridges that meet at certain point

7. Bifurcation - a ridge formation in which a single ridge splits or divides into 2 or more ridges.

8. Ridge Dot (Island Ridge) - refers to a ridge formation in a form of a dot or period.

9. Appendage - a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurve.

10. Rod (Bar) - a short or long ridge found inside the recurve directed towards the core.

11. Obstruction Ridge - short ridge found inside the recurve which blocks the inner line of flow

towards thecore.

12. Typelines - a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern area and serves as a basic

boundary offingerprint impression.

13. Pattern Area - a part of a loop or whorl pattern surrounded by typelines and consisting of

the delta, thecore and other ridges.

[Link] - also called the outer terminus, is a point along the ridge formation found at the

center or nearthe center of the diverging typelines.

[Link] - also called the heart or inner terminus, usually found at the center of the innermost

recurve.

Ridge Destruction - ridge destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary or

permanent. Generally temporary destruction occur when only the epidermis layer of the friction

skin has been damaged while permanent damage can be injected to the friction skin due to the

damage in the dermis layer.

Ridge Formation- ridges start to form in the fingers and thumb during the 3rd to 4th month of

fetus life.

Ridgeology- describes the individualization process of any area of friction skin using all

available detail.

Ridge Characteristics

1. Ridge Dots - An isolated ridge unit whose length approximates its width in size.

2. Bifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides into two friction ridges.

3. Trifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides into three friction ridges.

4. Ending Ridge - A single friction ridge that terminates within the friction ridge structure.

5. Ridge Crossing - A point where two ridge units intersect.

6. Enclosures (Lakes) - A single friction ridge that bifurcates and rejoins after a short course

and continues as a single friction ridge.

7. Short Ridges (Islands) - Friction ridges of varying lengths.

8. Spurs (Hooks) - A bifurcation with one short ridge branching off a longer ridge.

9. Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges, generally right angles.

RULES IN SELECTING FOCAL POINTS OF FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION

[Link] Formations

DELTA – This is a focal point on a ridge formation at or directly in front or near the

center of the divergence of the type lines. Delta is sometimes called as outer terminus.

It can be found in the following:

1. First ridge that forms at the divergence of the type lines.

2. First ridge that forms in front or center of the divergence of the type lines.
3. First ridge that forms the nearest to the divergence of the type lines.

Six (6) Delta Formations

The delta may be one of the following ridge characteristics.

1. Delta as bifurcating ridge

2. Delta as abrupt ending ridge

3. Delta as short ridge

4. Delta as a dot

5. Delta as meeting of two ridges

6. Delta as a point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center or in front of

the divergence.

Rules Governing the Choice Between Two or More Possible Deltas:

1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does not open toward the core.

2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the

bifurcation is selected.

3. When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the definition, the one

nearest the core is chosen.

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines

toward the core, but at the nearer end only.

5. IF THE RIDGE ENTERS THE PATTERN area below the divergence of the type lines,

the delta must be located at the end nearer to the core.

II. CORE FORMATION

CORE – This is a point in ridge formation usually located at the center or heart of

pattern. Core is sometime called as inner terminus.

1. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

2. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as

high as the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop

farther from the delta.

3. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods rising

as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod

whether it touches the looping ridge or not.

4. . When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising

as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of

the two center rods, the two center rods being treated as though they were

connected by a recurving ridge

Forms of fingerprint patterns and its elements

A. Radial loop- opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of the thumb or

either left or right thumb.

B. Ulnar loop- opening end of the loop ridge points in the direction of the thumb or

either left or right little finger.

C. Plain Whorl- This is a pattern consisting of two deltas and in which at least one

ridge makes a turn through one complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn

between the two deltas must touch or cross at least one of the recurving or

circuiting ridges within the pattern area. The pattern could be spiral, oval,

circular, or any variant of a circle.

Elements of the Plain Whorl:

1. A complete circuit
2. Two Deltas

3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line

traversing between the two deltas.

D. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL

This is pattern which possesses two deltas, with one or more ridges forming a

complete circuit which maybe oval, spiral, circular, or any variant of a circle; or it

is a pattern consisting of two deltas, with one or more recurving ridges with an

obstruction at right angles to the inner line of flow, between which an imaginary

line would touch or cross no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area.

Elements of the Central Pocket Loop Whorl:

1. At least one recurving ridge or obstruction ridge at right angle.

2. Two deltas.

3. No recurving ridge within the pattern area is touched or crossed by an

imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.

E. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL

This is a pattern consisting two separate and distinct loop formations, two sets

of shoulders, and two deltas.

Elements of Double Loop Whorl:

1. Two separate loop formations.

2. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders.

3. Two deltas.

Rules in Double Loop whorl:

1. The loops necessarily do not have to be of the same length and size.
2. The loops of a double loop whorl do not have to possess the requirements of

the plain loop.

3. There must be two separate loop formations.

F. ACCIDENTAL WHORL

The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different

types of pattern, with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas; or

a pattern which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different

types; or a pattern which conforms to none of the definitions. It may be a

combination of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and central pocket

loop, double loop and central pocket loop, or other such combinations.

Elements of Accidental Whorl:

1. Combination of two different types of patterns with the exception of the Plain

arch.

2. Two or more deltas.

G. PLAIN ARCH

This is pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern then flow

toward the other side, with a rise at the center.

H. TENTED ARCH

This is a type of pattern where majority of the ridges from an arch and one or

more ridges at the center shape a tent in outline giving an angle of 90⁰ degrees

or less, or one with an upward thrust having an angle of 45⁰ degrees or more, or

a pattern similar to loop but lacking one or two of its essential elements
 RIDGE COUNTING AND TRACING

RIDGE COUNTING. This is the process of counting the ridges that touch or cross

an imaginary line drawn between the delta and core of a loop.

RULES IN RIDGE COUNTING

1. Locate the exact points of the core and delta.

2. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core

and delta.

3. Never include the core and the delta in the count. Count only those ridges which

intervene or pass between the core and delta

4. Incipient ridges are never counted, no matter where they appear. The general

rule is that in order to be counted, the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of

the other ridges in the pattern under consideration.

What ridges are included in ridge counting?

Ridges subject to ridge counting with given numerical values are as follows:

1. A ridge island or dot is given one ridge count.

2. A short ridge is given one ridge count.

3. A long ridge is given one ridge count.

4. An abrupt-ending ridge is given one ridge count.

5. A bifurcating ridge- If a ridge bifurcates or branches into two across the

imaginary line cross only the bifurcation directly at the point of forking, it is counted

as two. If the imaginary line does not cross the point of forking or falls short of

touching it, it crosses only one ridge the count given is one.

6. Ridge enclosures are counted as two ridges – When the imaginary line crosses
or touches the point of bifurcation of an enclosure, two ridges are counted

7. Criss-crossing or meeting of two ridges is counted as two ridges

DIFFERENT APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND NON-SCIENTIFIC

TECHNIQUES OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION INCLUDING

DACTYLOSCOPY IN RELATION TO CRIME DETECTION AND INVESTIGATION

1. Dactyloscopy (fingerprint identification) – Identification of persons through

examination and comparison of fingerprints.

2. Forensic Photography – It is the art of producing an accurate reproduction of

a crime scene or an accident scene using photography for the benefit of a court

or to aid in an investigation.

3. Forensic Ballistics – A branch of ballistics that involves in the investigation

and identification of firearms by means of the ammunitions fired through them.

4. Questioned Document Examination – A branch of instrumentation that deals

with the study of documents that are questionable or disputable.

5. Polygraphy (Lie Detection) – The system or practice of determining whether

or not somebody is telling the truth during questioning. A polygraph, popularly

referred to as a lie detector test, is a device or procedure that measures and

records several physiological indicators such as blood pressure, pulse,

respiration, and skin conductivity while a person is asked and answers a series of

questions.

6. Legal Medicine – A branch of medicine which deals with the application of

medical knowledge to the purposes of law and in the administration of justice.

7. Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology – Forensic chemistry is the application

 of chemistry to criminal investigation; focuses on the chemical analysis of

substances connected to a crime. Forensic Toxicology deals with the medical

and legal aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals on human beings.

Toxicology is the study of the symptoms, mechanism and treatments and

detection of poisoning.

DIFFERENT APPLICATION OF TECHNIQUES IN DETECTION, COLLECTION,

PRESERVATION OF FORENSIC EVIDENCE RELATED TO FRICTION RIDGES

AND OTHER MEANS OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

1. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY - is the examination of human skeletal remains

for law enforcement agencies to help with the recovery of human remains,

determine the identity of unidentified human remains, interpret trauma, and

estimate time since death. Forensic anthropology uses the techniques of physical

anthropology to analyze skeletal, badly decomposed, or otherwise unidentified

human remains to solve crimes. Forensic anthropologists can assess the age, sex,

and unique features of a decedent and are invaluable on documenting in trauma to

the body and estimating how long a corpse 4 has been decomposing. Forensic

anthropologists work closely with individuals in law enforcement and medical

science and are often expert witnesses in murder trials.

2. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY - is the application of dental science to legal

investigations, primarily involving the identification of the offender by comparing

dental records to a bite mark left on the victim or at the scene, or identification of

human remains based on dental records.

3. DNA PROFILING - (also called DNA fingerprinting) is the process of

determining an individual's DNA characteristics, which are as unique as

fingerprints. DNA analysis intended to identify a species, rather than an individual,

is called DNA barcoding. DNA profiling is a forensic technique in criminal

investigations, comparing criminal suspects' profiles to DNA evidence so as to

assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime. It is also used in parentage

testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical

research.

4. FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION (DACTYLOSCOPY) - Identification of persons

through examination and comparison of fingerprints

EQUIPMENT USED IN TAKING FINGERPRINTS

1. Ink Roller – refers to an instrument used for spreading the ink into the ink slab or

inking plate.

2. Ink Slab/inking plate- refers to a piece of metal or a plane glass with as much as ¼

thick and 6 or more inches long where the fingerprint ink is distributed for fingerprinting.

3. Card Holder – refers to a gadget sued for clipping the fingerprint card to avoid

movement of the card during printing.

4. Fingerprint ink – refers to an especially manufacture ink for purposes of taking

fingerprints.

5. Fingerprint Card – refers to a piece card used for recording the ten fingerprints. The

usual size is 8” x 8”.

6. Fingerprint table – a table intended for taking fingerprints.

7. Post-mortem fingerprint equipment – refers to a set of equipment of hypodermis

syringe, spoon, tissue builder solvent, tissue cleaner, etc. for taking prints of dead

person.

CDI2: FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Principles of photography and historical developments

Principles of Photography

A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce

a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.

Lights reflected or radiated by subject matter and other lights must be excluded.

The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary light is achieved by placing the

sensitized material inside a camera.

The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately

visible to the eyes. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the

development process. The visual effect that results from this chemical processing

is dependent on the quantity of light reaching the sensitized material. Too much

or too little light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material

after development. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete

image.

Historical Developments

a. Basic Components of Photography

1. Light- the days of creation

2. Equipment- portable camera obscura (dark chamber)

3. Chemicals- light sensitivity to silver nitrate and silver chloride produced

 pictogram

b. True Photography

• 1839- is generally known as the birth year of photography. William

Henry Fox Talbot explained a process he had invented (calotype) at the

Royal Society of London. The "Calotype" used paper with its surface

fibers impregnated with light-sensitive compounds. Louis Jacques

Mande Daguerre made a public demonstration in Paris "Daguerreotype"

in collaboration with Joseph Nicephore Niepce. The "Daguerreotype"

formed an image directly on the silver surface of a metal plate. With

Talbot's "calotype," the fixation was only partial, while Daguerre’s

Daguerreotypes, images were made permanent with the use of hypo

• 1848 - Abel Niepce de Saint - Victor introduced a process of negatives

on glass using albumen (egg white) as a binding medium.

• 1850 - Louis Deserie Blanquart - Evard introduced a printing paper

coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.

• 1851 - Frederick Scott Archer - published a "wet plate" process wherein

collodion—a viscous liquid that dries to a tough, flexible, and transparent

film—replaced albumen.

• 1885 - Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced,

based on films in 1889.

• During this time, the cameras were crude; the lenses could not form a

true image; and the sensitive materials required long exposures and

could not reproduce colors in shades of gray.

• It was in 1856 when John F.W. Herschel coined the word "photography."

• 1848 - Abel Niepce de Saint - Victor introduced a process of

negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as a binding medium.

• 1850 - Louis Deserie Blanquart - Evard introduced a printing paper

coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.

• 1851 - Frederick Scott Archer - published a "wet plate" process

wherein collodion—a viscous liquid that dries to a tough, flexible, and

transparent film—replaced albumen.

• 1885 - Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced,

based on films in 1889. During this time, the cameras were crude; the

lenses could not form a true image; and the sensitive materials

required long exposures and could not reproduce colors in shades of

gray.

It was in 1856 when John F.W. Herschel coined the word

"photography."

• 1861 - James Clark Maxwell researched colors.

• 1890 - Full corrected lenses were introduced

• 1906 - A plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all

colors in equivalent shades of gray.

• 1907 - Lumiere color process was introduced; a panchromatic film was

used, but with blue, green, and red filters.

• 1914 - U.S. Eastman Kodak made a color subtractive process called

 Kodachrome.

• 1935 - Color process came out together with electronic flash.

• 1947 - Edwin H. Land introduced "Polaroid," the one-step

photography.

• 1960 - LASER was invented, making possible holograms (three-

dimensional pictures).

• 1988 - The arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera

that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-

1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used

a battery to keep the data in memory. This camera was never

marketed in the USA.

The first commercially available digital camera was the 1992 Kodak

DCS-100. It used a 1.3-megapixel sensor and was priced at $13,000.

The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the

back was the Casio QV-10 in 1995, and the first camera to use

compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996. In 1999, the Nikon D1,

a 2.74-megapixel camera, was the first digital SLR with the price of

under $6,000. This camera also used Nikon's interchangeable lenses.

In 2003, Nikon introduced the 300D camera, also known as Digital

Rebel, a 6-pixel camera and the first DSLR priced under $1,000 to

consumers.

C. Criminal Applications
 “The history of forensic science and criminal investigation is both rich

and exciting. The discoveries and observations of our predecessors

are likewise surprising and comforting. The great men and women who

paved a path of enlightenment in crime investigation continue to teach

us long after their deaths. These are the aspirations that we should

aspire to endow. We are fortunate to work in a profession with a strong

foundation and a bright and seemingly endless future." (Thomas W.

Adir, Editor 'The Scene')

• 1854 - An Englishman, Maddox, developed a dry plate photography,

eclipsing Daguerre's wet plate on tin method. This made practical the

photography of inmates for prison records.

• 1859 - In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science

was in photography. It was used to demonstrate evidence in a California

case. Enlarged photographs of signatures were presented in a court

case involving forgery.

• 1864 - Odelberch first advocates the use of photography for the

identification of criminals and the documentation of evidence and crime

scenes

Criminology Education

1902- 1ST academic curricular in forensic science Switzerland

1950-August Vollmer- presided criminalistics school

1954- Plaridel Educational Institution (Philippine College of Criminology) pioneered

criminology education in PH
 Kinds of photography and its significance as applied to law

enforcement operations.

Photomicrography- Taking a magnified photograph of small object

through attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as

to show the minute details of the physical evidence. It is used usually in

question documents and Firearm Identification to show minute details for

evidence.

Microphotography- The process of reducing big objects or things of

minute objects, is the process of photo- graphing images through a micro-

scope.

Microphotography- synonymously with photomacrography.

Crime scene photography- Deals with the photographing the scene of the

crime or details of perpetuated crime.

4 views in photographing crime scene

1. GENERAL VIEW - taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It

shows direction and location of the crime scene

2. MEDIUM VIEW- Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime

by dividing it into section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.

3. CLOSE-UP VIEW- Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence

at the scene of the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.

4. EXTREME CLOSE-UP VIEW - Commonly designed in laboratory

photographing using some magnification such as Photomacrography and

photomicrography
Surveillance Photography- deals with photographing individuals without

his knowledge, such as the same in clandestine photography.

Telephotography - Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with

the aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.

Traffic Accident Photography- deals with the photographing of traffic

incidents or occurrence especially in a vehicular accident.

Mug shot photography- Deals with the study of photographing individuals

for identification purposes.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

1. X-RAY- radiation having a wavelength between 01 to 30 nanometer or milli-microns.

They are produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.

2. ULTRA-VIOLET RAY - radiation having a wavelength from 30 to 400 milli-microns. It is

used to photograph fingerprints on multi-colored background, documents that are altered

chemically or over writings and detection of secret writings.

3. VISIBLE LIGHT RAYS/ WHITE LIGHT - rays having a wavelength of 400 to 700 milli-

microns

4. INFRA-RED RAY- radiation having a wavelength of 700 to 1000 milli-microns. It is

used in taking photographs of obliterated writing, burnt or dirty documents or blackout

photography.

EFFECTS OF LIGHT WHEN IT HITS AN OBJECT

Reflected - once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back.

Absorbed - when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it from either bouncing

or passing through.

Transmitted - when the light hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass

through its medium and

Transparent – pass through light, 90%

Translucent – pass through light, 50%

Light that is scattered?

CONCURRENT LIGHT

Light that is aligned such as laser light?

COHERENT

DIFFERENT PARTS AND FUNCTIONS BOTH FOR ANALOG AND

DIGITAL CAMERA INCLUDING THEIR ACCESSORIES AS USED IN

FORENSIC INVESTIGATION

Camera- Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of

blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized

material. Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts

such as light tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.

Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Body or Light Tight Box – suggest an enclosure devoid or light. An enclosure,

which would prevent light from exposing the sensitized material inside the
camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or enclosure will always
light tight at all the time because if it does, then no light could reach the
sensitized material during exposure. It means that before and after the
extraneous light, which is not necessary to form the final images.

2. Lens – the function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is
chiefly Responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which light
 passes during the Exposure.

3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for a
predetermined interval of time, which light is again blocked off from the film.

4. Holder of sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function
is to hold firmly the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the
formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.

5. View-finder – it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the

extent of the coverage of the lens.

Digital Camera- A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital
images and videos digitally and stores them for later [Link] cameras
sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices
ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones)

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

1. PINHOLE CAMERA- camera of simple design and construction usually home-

made consisting of a box having a small aperture functioning as lens at one end,
the image being projected on the film on the other end.

FOCUSING SYSTEM FOR PINHOLE/A PINHOLE PHOTOGRAPH

2. BOX CAMERA- a simple camera is little more than a pinhole camera. It has lens
and shutter in the box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the
photographer gather more light to be recorded
3. CAMERA OBSCURA- latin for DARK CHAMBER. Was an optical device used in
drawing and one of the ancestral threads leading to the invention of
Photography.

CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING

CHEMICAL PROCESSING

After the exposure of the film to light I the picture taking or the photographic
paper during printing, the next step would generally be chemical processing. In black
and white processing, the steps are development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color
processing, the steps are color development, stop fix and stabilizer.
 STAGES OF CHEMICAL PROCESSING

1. DEVELOPMENT- Is the process by which an invisible latent image in an

emulsion is made visible. In black and white emulsion, the image is composed of
grains of black metallic silver. In a color emulsion, the developed silver is
replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye.
In this development, a developing agent chemically breaks down or reduce
exposed silver halide crystals to form grans of metallic silver. This process of
reaction is the same in both black and white films and photographic papers.

2. STOP-BATH- it halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also

prevents the contamination of the developer and fixer from each other.
3. FIXATION- a fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by
a through washing. In this processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped
silver halides crystals are dissolved and removed from the emulsion of the
photographic material.

Dark room Photography

Darkroom – Alight tight room used for developing film making contact print and
enlargement.

- A room protected from rays of light harmful to sensitized materials, plates and
papers.
A darkroom- is used to process photographic film, to make prints and to carry out
other associated tasks. It is a room that can be made completely dark to allow the
processing of the light-sensitive photographic materials, including film and
photographic paper.
TWO DISTINCT SIDES:
1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that must be kept away from water.

2. Wet Side – processing area, chemical, stock solutions, trays and other materials.

CHEMICAL PROCESSES:
 • Developing process of film –the latent image becomes permanent and visible
in a reverse way thus producing a negative.
• Developing process of photo paper – the permanent and visible image
produces positive print, image or photographs.

TWO FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DEVELOPING PROCESS:

1. Density – is the degree of darkness of the image developed – too dark or to

light.
2. Contrast – is the difference of tone from another.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENSITIZED

MATERIAL:

1. Concentration or strength of the working solution – used mixture

procedure by manufacturers.

2. Temperature of chemical involved in the development process

3. Time of development
4. Agitation of the sensitized material during development.
CHEMICAL PROCESSING
1. Development- processes of reduction, exposed silver halides are reduced into
metallic silver.
2. Stop-bath- it is an intermediate bath between development and fixer
- To prevent contamination of chemical.
3. Fixation- the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the
emulsion after the first stage of development of the latent image.
4. Washing- use of running water.
5. The application “Wetting Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo- to prevent watermark and
easier to dry.
6. Drying

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPER:

1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulfite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or fog preventer – potassium bromide

Chemical Component of a Fixer: Two Systems of film developing:

1. Dissolving Agent- hypo or sodium 1. Repeated use system- after each
thiosulphite development the solution is poured in
2. Preservative- sodium sulphite a container for use again.
3. Neutralizer- boric and acetic acid 2. One shot system- after development
4. Hardener- potassium alum the solution is poured into the sink

Intensification- the addition of minute part

of another metal usually chromium or
Faults and Remedy on Negatives: mercury on the top of the metallic silver
1. Intensification- under-exposed formed to strengthen contrast to obtain good
negative density. Under exposed negative.
2. Reduction- over-exposed negative
3. Increasing or Decreasing
Development time
4. Use of development that increase or
subdues contrast. Reduction- the reducing of density in the
negative-overexposed negatives potassium
ferry cyanide and sodium thiosulphite or
Hypo or Farmer’s Reducer.

Film Processing Procedure

1. Tank Method of Film development
a. Mix the developer, stop bath and fixer according to the instructional manuals.
Then bring it to the temperature which is 20-21 C or 68-70 F.
b. In a dry area, lay out the film, opener, scissors, reel and tank so they can be
readily located in the dark.
c. In complete darkness, open the film cartridge by simply prying off the cap
opposite the end, where the long spool core protrudes. Extend the film then
remove it from the tips in the spool core and reel it.
 Reeling Procedure -Hold the film with the emulsion side in or down loosely in one hand
while the other hand holds the reel.
Engage the film’s end at the center clip or hook of the reel
Slightly squeeze the film width by pressing between the thumb and the forefinger so it
narrows just enough to fit into the reel.
Turn the reel with the other hand to pull the film unto the reel.
Do not apply excessive pressure with the other hand holding and squeezing the film.
Let the film pass freely, it will straighten out full width in the spiral space of the reel.
d. After the reeling of the film is done, place it inside the daylight developing tank
then cover it. While light can now be opened. Remove the lid cover of the
tank and pour the film developer slowly until the tank is full. Invert the tank
then and agitate it for a few seconds. Timer should start. Intermittent agitation
should be made during the developing time. After 5-6 minutes pour out or
drain the developer.
e. Put in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds
drain out the stop bath. Next is to pour the fixing bath. Agitation should also
be done. And after 15-20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank.

Note:

Used developer, stop-bath and fixer can be used again and again but instead of pouring
them back in the bottles of fresh or unused solutions, pour them in a separate container
so it will not contaminate the fresh or unused solution.
f. You may now wash the negative for several changes of preference in running
water for another 15-20 minutes.
g. Remove the negative from the developing reel. Get the sponge and immerse
it in water then squeeze it to remove the excess water. Wipe the negative with
a sponge slowly to remove the water adhering on the negative. These must
be done on both sides of the negative. Water that adheres on the surface of
the negative can cause watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
h. Hang the negative to dry at a clean, but free place or better in a negative
drier.

2. Tray Method of Film Development -The developer is placed on a tray.

In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold the end of the film and
immerse the film in the developer in the tray making, make sure that the film is
thoroughly dipped until the whole length of the film is evenly wet.
Timer will start.
With a see-saw of pulling up or down motion, move the film from the one end to the
other then back, continuously until the developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds with the same motion.
Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute the same motion for about 5 minutes
then you can now open the white light.

Continue the fixing until the required time is

finished. Next will be the washing and drying
of the negative.
●This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has
long contact with air during the procedure which can cause aerial fog. Besides it
is more tedious and tiring especially with a 36-exposure film.

GUIDELINES IN TAKING PHOTOGRAPHS IN DIFFERENT CRIME

SCENE SCENARIOS

Taking Photographs of Specific Crime Scene

Suicide by Hanging- strangulation is the most common type of suicide. But

investigator must not assume that the victim found hanging is due to suicide.

-Photograph the subject at a distant at four views, showing the full body, and then
move in close to show the knot and the bruises marks. (NOTE: do not untie the knot,
just cut it)

Suicide by Shooting- photographs both entrance and exit wounds.

-in most case exit wound is larger than entrance wound

-if possible, photograph close-up of the wound in color to show various

discoloration.

-Take note of the color of the body (discoloration)

-usually, the hair surround the entrance is singeing and the skin is burned to
reddish or greyish-brown. If it is fired from range of less than eight inches, black residue
maybe evident.
Homicide case- when photographing the scene, the Forensic photographer relates
what he has been and defends before the court during trial.

-through photograph he has to show the manner by which the homicide occurred,
views the room with all possible entrance and exit.

-he must to show whether there are any evidence of struggle and try to show
what happen prior to the crime scene. Obvious evidence such as cigarette butts, blood
stains or broken glass should not be overlooked.

-the circumstances of death can be illustrated by various views of the body. Take
close-up shots of the wounds, bruises weapon used and the place where it was taken.

Photographing corpse- in photographing corpse on the scene, several pictures of the

conditions at the time of discovery including the environment of the corpse must be
taken from various photographic directions,

-show the general condition of the corpse, if as being deformed as whole

-when photographing the damage parts, consider the range of photographing to

the damage part clearly; tale close-up shots on the several directions, if possible so as
to clarify their relation.

Robbery Case- photograph the general view of the crime scene

-the point of entry begins with a distant shot, and works into.

-take close-up shots on the possible entry and exit to include the pathways

- Each room in house or a building which was disturbed should be photograph.

Take some shots of all furniture or articles which shows as evidence of being
ransack.

-determine the possible pint of exit. Usually burglar may leave something at the crime
scene especially when she is surprised by someone, such as hat, gloves and scarf or
cigarette butt, etc.…

Sex Offenses- the crime of rape may be taken as typical type of offense. There must be
written permission from the victim, the photograph must be taken in the presence of
their parents or guardian or medico legal officer. The indication of the victim’s effort to
resists bruises and blue marks and evidence of the presence of either or both parties at
the scene.
 -to the VICTIM: Verify the head, neck including marks and discoloration of the
body and genital, the conditions of specifically affected parts, and the presence of
foreign hairs, fibers, and biological stains. Bite marks wounds should be photographed
at twelve to 24 hours intervals for the proceeding days.

-To the SUSPECT: the suspect’s body may show evidence of struggle, such as
scratches or bruises, foreign hairs that maybe discovered by the suspects may reveal
blood stains, semen, hair strands, etc.

Arson- the photographer should be the first man to arrive at the scene so that he will be
able to begin photographing the scene, before the fire trucks arrive he should have his
photographic equipment ready to start shooting immediately.

-Be sure to photograph as many speculators as you can. It is a common

knowledge that most or the arsonist get their kicks out of watching the fire and maybe in
the crowd.

-after the fire is extinguished, take interior views of the scene from diagonally
opposite corners of the buildings. Also get up a high ladder and take more photographs
of the ruins of the fire to show the entire extent of fire.

-to the immediate vicinity of the fire should also be photographed after the fire to
show the location of the building in relation to other building of the neighbourhood.

Problems:

• The greatest scourge to the fire photographer is lens fogging, produced by

contact with heat and steam. The photographer must wait for the air to cool
somewhat because attempting to photograph indoor damages.
• Smoke also forms a barrier which light sometimes cannot penetrate.

Road/ Traffic accidents

a. Avoid unnecessary surrounding/object that are not pertinent to the case.

b. “see through driver’s eye”. Photography should be taken from the eye level of the
driver. If there are witnesses, photographs should be taken at their level from the
spot where they have seen the incident.
c. Shots should be taken form our points of the compass and 25 feet from point of
impact to show the approach and terrain.
d. Take close-up shots of the damage area in two angles from a distance of 8 to 10
feet.
 e. Takes shots in order and properly noted at the photographer notes so it will guide
him and the investigator how the accident occurred.

CDI 3 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

PRINCIPLES, SCOPE AND PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY IN

RELATION TO CRIME DETECTION

Forensic Chemistry- branch of Chemistry which deals with the application of

chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with the

administration of justice.

Forensic Science - is the use of science and technology to enforce civil and

criminal laws.

Scopes:

It includes chemical side of criminal investigation.

It includes the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to

legal proceeding.

It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine,

ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy and photography.

Protocols in handling chemical and biological evidences such as blood,

semen, fiber, explosives and drugs from crime scene to court room

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE- May consist of blood, skin, hair, semen, saliva, and urine.

BLOOD -Has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to as highly

complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. Blood is opaque. On

treatment with water or other reagents it becomes transparent and assumes lake color. It is

faintly alkaline.
EXAMINATION OF BLOOD

4 chronological tests for blood:

1. Preliminary Test

2. Confirmatory Test

3. Precipitin Test

4. Blood Grouping / Typing

I. PRELIMINARY TEST - used to demonstrate presence of blood (maybe blood).

Test Positive Result

1. Benzidine test- Intense blue color

2. Phenolphthalein test (Kastle-Meyer test) - Rose color or deep pink or permanganate

color.

3. Guaiacum test (Van Deen or Day’s or Schoinbein Test) - Beautiful blue color

4. Leucomalahite Test- Bluish green

5. Luminol Test- Luminescence

Note: Oxidation is the principle involved in the color formation of the preliminary test for

blood except in

luminol test.

Peroxidase– enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic

compounds by peroxide.

II. CONFIRMATORY TEST- the actual proof that a stain is blood (surely blood)
A. Microscopic test

a.1. Useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles.

a.2. Distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.

a.3. Investigation of menstrual, lochial and nasal charges.

B. Microchemical or microcrystalline test

Test Positive Result

1. Teichmann Test or Heamin Crystal Test- Dark brown rhombic crystal of heamatin

chloride

2. Haemochromogen crystal test or Takayama test- Large rhombic crystals of salmon

pink color arranged in

clusters or sheaves.

3. Acetone-Haemin Test- Small dark diachronic acicular crystals of acetone haemin.

C. Spectroscopic examination- the most delicate and reliable test for the determination

of the presence of

blood in both old and recent stains.

III. PRECIPITIN TEST

Is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal

origin.

If human blood, the positive result is a white cloudy line or milky precipitate at the

contact point of

the fluids.
IV. BLOOD GROUPING/TYPING

SEMEN

Semen - a viscid whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of

spermatozoa suspended in

secretion of accessory glands.

Parts of semen:

a. Seminal fluid

b. Formed cellular elements

b.1. Spermatozoa or sperm cells (400-500 Million / ejaculation)

b.2. Epithelial cells

b.3. Crystals of choline and lecithin

Semen can be found fresh in:

Vaginal contents of the victim

Rectal contents of the victim

Cases Wherein Semen Has No Spermatozoa

Aspermia – a condition wherein males have no spermatozoa at all in their

seminal fluid.

Oligospermia – a condition whereby males have abnormally low sperm counts or

few spermatozoa.

Semen can be found as wet or dried condition/secretion on:

Pubic hair

Skin around the genitals

Semen can be found as dry/stains on:

Underclothing

Bed sheets or bed clothing

EXAMINATION FOR SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS:

I. Physical examination – determines the physical appearance as to the feel,

color, odor, ultraviolet light etc.

II. Chemical examination

A. Florence test– crystals of choline periodide which are dark brown, rhombic or

needle shaped that appear

singly or in clusters.

B. Barberio test– crystals which are slender yellow-tinted, rhomboid needles with

obtuse angle or appear as

ovoid crystals of spermine picrate.

C. Acid-Phosphatase test (Walker Test)– purple color

III. Microscopic examination

long as its head.

IV. Biological examination - The test was proposed by Farnum in 1901. This test

is also known as spermato-precipitin which is of great

value in the identification in certain cases like for example bestiality. Only a

secretor can be determined by

this test.

GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important

problems may arise: - Determination of whether or not a person has fired a gun -

Determination of the probable gunshot range - Determination of the approximate

time of firing of the gun

Possible Locations Of Gunpowder Residue - Residue of the barrel of the gun - In

or around the wound - On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range -

On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun.

Paraffin Test (Dermal Nitrate test or Diphenylamine test or Lunge’s test) – a test

to determine whether a

person fired a gun or not with his bare hands.

Positive Result – Deep blue specks develop when nitrates comes in contact with

DPA reagent.

Other sources of nitrates:

1. Fertilizers 5. Urine
2. Explosives 6. Cosmetics

3. Tobacco 7. Detergents

4. Firecrackers

Possibilities that a person maybe found negative even if he actually fired a gun: -

Use of automatic pistol - Direction of wind - Wind velocity - Excessive

perspiration - Use of gloves - Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the

nitrates

Determination of the probable gunshot range: - The clothing of the victim with

bullet perforations should be submitted for possible gunshot range. - It is only

possible to determine the probable gunshot range if the gun was fired from a

distance of zero

(contact firing) to 36 inches (3 feet).

Distance of Firing Characteristics of Pattern

0-2 inches Gaping hole, smudging, tattooing and burning

2- 8 inches Smudging

8-36 inches Tattooing

Beyond 36 inches Evidence of powder tattooing is seldom present

Determination of the probable time the gun has been fired

Rust

» formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good

indication for the determination of

the approximate time the gun has been fired.

» if a gun has not been fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the

gun.

» if a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel.

This iron salts are soon

oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.

Presence of nitrite (NO2) – firearms could have been fired recently - BLUE

Presence of nitrate (NO3) – firearms could have been fired but not recently -

YELLOW GREEN

HAIR

Hair - Is a specialized outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the

human body except on the palm

of the hands and the sole of the feet. It is not completely round but maybe oval or

flattened. Its width is not

always the same along its length. It starts out pointed and narrow and then strays

more or less the same.

Two kinds of hair:

Real hair– generally long and stiff

Fuzz hair – generally short, fine at times curly and wooly

Parts of hair:

Root – portion embedded in the skin.

Shaft – portion above the surface of the skin. Most distinctive part of the skin.

Tip – sometimes termed as point. The distal end of an uncut hair shaft.

Parts of the shaft:

Cuticle – tells whether human or animal hair.

Cortex – tells the race of the hair whether Negroid, Caucasian or Mongoloid.

Medulla or core – tells whether the hair belongs to male or female.

Microscopic Examination Of Hair

Color – melanin

Length

Character

Width or breadth

Character of the hair tip if present

Manner by which hair had been cut

Condition of root or base or bulb of hair

Character of cuticle
 Character of cortex

Presence of hair dye in hair

Determination of whether naturally or artificially curled.

Character of medulla

Classification Of Textile Fibers

Natural Fibers

a.1. Vegetable fibers ex. cotton

a.2. Animal fibers ex. wool

a.3. Mineral fibers ex. Asbestos

TEXTILE FIBERS

Textile Fibers - derived from Latin word “textilis” and the French “texere”, to

weave, hence textile fiber

means that can be converted into yarn.

Synthetic Fibers or Artificial (Man-made)

b.1. Organic

b.1.1. Cellulosic

b.1.2. Non-cellulosic

b.2. Inorganic

b.2.1. Mineral

b.2.2. Metallic
Test For Textile Fibers

I. Burning or ignition test– a test that determines whether fiber is mineral, animal

or vegetable fiber (easily

burned).

II. Flourescence test– Vegetable fibers exhibit a yellow fluorescence in ultraviolet

light whereas animal

fibers show bluish fluorescence.

III. Microscopic examination– the most reliable and best means of identifying

fiber.

IV. Chemical analysis of fibers

A. Staining test– only animal fibers react with picric acid and Millon’s reagent

while vegetable fiber reacts with stannic chloride. B. Dissolution test– wool and

silk were dissolved in NaOH while cotton, linen, wild silk and cellulosic silk does

not.

● Familiar with the scientific procedures in the collection and preservation of drugs and

poisons and other toxicological concerns.

General Treatment Of Poisoning

1. Removal of poison from stomach.

2. Administration of antidotes.

3. Elimination of poisons by excretion

4. Stimulation and other symptomatic treatment.

5. Special treatment.

Investigation Of Fatal Cases

In the investigation of fatal cases, it is not necessary that an investigator

should be an expert on the poisons,

since a medico-legal officer and a toxicologist will assist him in his

investigation, but it is important and will

be a great help to him if he knows the following:

1. Symptoms of various kind of poisoning;

2. The lethal dose of poisoning;

3. The length of the time that may elapse after the poison has been taken

before death occurs;

4. Where the poison was obtained;

5. The chemical formula of the poison;

6. Other names it is known in the market;

7. Uses of poison.

PROCEDURE IN DRUGS CASE

1. Record the time, date of arrival, location of the scene, weather condition,

type of lighting, direction of wind and visibility.

2. Secure the crime scene by installing tape, rope, or cordon.

3. Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene, determine first

the status of the victim, whether he is still alive or already dead. If the
victim is still alive, the investigators should exert effort to gather information

from the victim himself regarding the circumstances of the crime, while a

member of the team or someone must call an ambulance from the nearest

hospital. After the victim is remove and brought to the hospital for medical

attention, measure, sketch, and photograph.

4. Designate a member of the team or summon other policemen or

responsible persons to stand watch and secure the scene, and permit only

those authorized persons to enter the scene. 5. Identify and retain for

questioning the person who first notified the police, and other possible

witnesses

Principle of chain of custody of evidence as to proper tagging,

labelling and turnover and receipt of evidence

CDI 4: QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Familiar with the principles of questioned document examination.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

The following principles in QDE must be noted, that:

1. Documents are questioned, disputed, and attacked on many grounds and for various

reasons

2. Documents should be preserved, handled and cared for, in a manner that will not

impair the slightest degree of its value as evidence

3. Documents must be protected

4. Q.D. examination observes phases of specific approaches

● Identify the forms of questioned document examination

DOCUMENTS ARE QUESTIONED, DISPUTED AND ATTACKED

The great majority of questioned papers are included in the following classes:
1. Documents with questioned signatures - these are the most common disputed
documents. They may be commercial or legal paper, such as a check, note, receipt, draft, order,
contract, agreements, assignments, will, deed, or similar documents, the signature of which is
under suspicion. Under this class are found the traced forgery and the forgery produced by
simulating or copying process.

2. Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations - Included here are all documents in
which it is alleged that some alteration was made by erasure, addition, interlineations or
substitution. Questions may arise as to the order or sequence of writing as shown by crossed
lines, age and continuity of writing, erasures and changes, identity of ink, identity of pen and
condition, fraudulent interlineations in contracts, deeds, wills, and other legal papers.

3. Holograph documents questioned or disputed- Here, the writing of an entire written

document is all questioned. Scrutinize the document, search, and pay attention to consideration
of paper, watermarks, ink, pens, style or system of writing, natural variation or variety of form in
writing, continuity of writing, slant, spacing and shading of writing, wording, subject matter,
seals, folding and ruling. Examples are manuscripts, letters of introduction and
recommendations, letter of credit, diplomas, marriage certificates, marriage contracts, court
papers, book plates, etc.
4. Documents attacked on the question of their age or date. – Included here are documents
in which the age of an instrument or the age of some part of it is investigated or a document in
which the comparative age of different parts may have some bearing on the question of its
genuineness.

5. Documents attacked on the question of materials used in their production. Some

documents may be shown to be false because they were dated many years before the paper
was made on which they were written. Other matters for investigation here are: type printed
forms, lithographed forms, typewriting, envelops, stamps, contents, or any tangible thing that
has a date value.
[Link] investigated on the question of type writings/ computer prints. The question

that maybe raised in the document may either be the use of the same machine at different times

or at different times on different machines.

Familiar the kinds of handwriting identification and examination including

signature examination

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING

STANDARDS IN ALL TYPES OF QUESTIONED-DOCUMENT

PROBLEMS

1. Have the subject seated in a natural position at the table or desk having

smooth writing surface.

2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used

in questioned writings, lie; paper should be the same size, and ruled or

unruled; as questioned document: if the questioned document is in written

furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.

3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned

document.

4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand

printed): give no assistance in spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at

a rate of speed, which will produce the subject natural writing habits.

5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in

consequence, date, time and identify by initiating each, and request

subjects to sign each specimen.

6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of

disguise, and whether subjects appear to be normally right or left-handed,

etc.

HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS?

Factors to Consider in the Selection of standards:

A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN

B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings are

hand printed, then get hand printed standard or exemplar.

C. RELATIVE DATES of the questions and the standards writing standard

signatures or writing must be those written five (5) years before or five (5)

after the date of the questioned signature or writing. The importance of

contemporaneous standards are: 1. Helps to determine or trace gradual

changes on one’s handwriting or signature. 2. Aids in tracing the

development of any writing variation

D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE

STANDARD ARE PREPARED. Look for standards prepared under

comparable circumstances such as: paper rested on the knee; standing;

sitting; lying down; and/or while on a moving vehicle.

E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the

 preparation of the questioned document must be obtained in the standard

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. No two writers write exactly alike.

2. The physical condition and position of the person including his

writing instrument may affect the handwriting characteristics but they

do not confine all its identifying elements.

3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skills without

serious effort and training applied over a period of time.

4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derive

from form and writing movements are essential elements of

identification.

5. Individuality in writing can only be determined through comparative

examination e=with the standard written prepared under comparable

condition.

6. Similarity does not mean identity.

7. Complete identity means definite forgery.

8. 8.1 A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient

number of identical writing habits and identical primary controlling

characteristics and in addition, the absence of divergent

characteristics.

2. A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient

number of divergent writing characteristics and the absence of primary

controlling characteristics.

HANDWRITING - It is the result of a very complicated series of facts,

being used as a whole, a combination of certain forms of visible mental

and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort. Some

defined handwriting as “visible speech.”

Types of handwriting:

Cursive writing – inscription or lettering wherein the letters are for the

most part joined together.

Disguised writing – A writing specimen that is executed deliberately with

an attempt to alter the usual writing habits in the attempt to conceal the

identity of the one executing the writing.

Guided – Also known as assisted writing it is executed while the writer’s

hand is steadied in a way. They are most commonly written during a

serious illness or on a deathbed and employed as a method for beginners

in writing.

Hand lettering – Refers to a specimen of writing characterized by a

disconnected style.

Natural writing – Refers to that specimen of writing that is written or

executed normally without any attempt to control or alter its identifying

habits and its usual quality of execution.

A signature is a combination of rather limited letters and designs and due

to its frequent use; it becomes almost automatic with its source. The

identification or the so called “verification” of signature is a specialized

branch of handwriting examination.

Known signatures may contain elements and a feature not common

to the writer’s other classes of writing. Factors identification given closest

style in signature examination may not be given the same special

emphasis in general writing.

Classes of Signature:

Formal or complete – It usually executed in signing significant and

important documents and papers.

Cursory or Informal – It is usually executed in the conduct of one’s own

daily affairs. Primarily of routine nature.

Careless scribble – It is usually executed for signing receipts and similar

insignificant documents.

Two Groups of Muscles Involved in Handwriting:

1. Extensor muscles - push up the pen to form the upward strokes

2. Flex muscles which push the pen to form the downward strokes. When

flexor and extensor muscles are combined with lumbrical muscles, lateral

stroke is formed.

Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing -

those which operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder.
The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work

together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.

SIGNATURE The name of a person written by him/ her in a document as

a sign of acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or mark that a person puts at

the end of a document to attest that he is its author or that he ratifies its

contests. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about

signature: 1. Signed name 2. Signing of name 3. Distinctive characteristics

● Familiar the different techniques in examining of questioned documents in

restoring and deciphering alterations.

 ● Identify the different equipment used the questioned document examinations in

identifying and differentiating writing characteristics.

Questioned Document Examination Microscopes: Specialized microscopes designed

to magnify documents, allowing examiners to observe fine details like ink variations,

paper fibers, and handwriting characteristics.

Digital Imaging Instrumentation: Technology that captures high-resolution images of

documents for detailed analysis and documentation. This can include scanners and

cameras that enhance features not visible to the naked eye.

Infrared and Ultraviolet Light Sources: Tools that emit infrared or ultraviolet light to

reveal hidden features of documents, such as alterations, forgeries, or watermarks that

are not visible under normal lighting conditions.

Video Analysis Tools: Software and hardware used to analyze video recordings of

documents or handwriting. This can assist in examining movements, stroke patterns,

and other aspects of writing.

Specialized Equipment Including Electrostatic Detection Devices (EDD): Devices

that utilize electrostatic charges to visualize indented writing on surfaces, helping to

reveal text that has been pressed onto a sheet below.

CDI 6: LIE DETECTION TECHNIQUES

● Familiar the Basic Concepts of Lie Detection Techniques for both scientific and

non-scientific in detecting deception.

CONCEPT OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

Polygraph Examination is used to test an individual for the purpose of detecting

deception or verifying the truthfulness of his statements It is done by recording

identifiable physiological reactions of the subject, such as blood pressure, pulse

rate, respiration and skin resistance The effectiveness of the polygraph in the

recording symptoms of deceptions is based on the theory that “A conscious mental

effort on the part of a normal person to deceive causes involuntary physiological

changes that are in effect a body’s reaction to an imminent danger to its well-being”

Types of Lies

1. Direct Denial- this is a direct denial of the act in question that creates an emotional

sense of disturbance. Example: “I did not do it.” The vague response permits the

person to evade inner conflict while seeming to answer the question.

2. Lie of Omission- this is a type of lie that people usually use because it is simple to

tell. It is telling the truth while omitting some of its details that could create possible

troubles.

3. Lie of fabrication- this is the most difficult lie that a subject could use in an interview.

This is done by inventing stories or details that are far behind from the truth.

4. Lie of Minimization- in this type of lie, the individual will accept but downplays the

implication. It could be used if a subject wanted to stay close to the truth, however,
 he covers some portion of the truth for his or her own benefit.

5. Lie of Exaggeration- this is a lie used to exaggerate things for the hope of obtaining

some advantage.

6. Benign lie- a lie used to maintain harmony of friendship of the home or office.

7. Red lie- this is a lie used to destroy other ideologies by means of propaganda.

8. Malicious lie- a chronic lie purely used to mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to

obstruct justice.

Liar is a person who tells lies.

Different types of Liars

Sociopathic Liars are those who lie continuously to get their own way, without care or

concern for others. They are goal oriented

Compulsive Liars are someone who continually lies as their habit. They feel discomfort

of being truthful because lying makes them feel right.

Occasional Liars are those who seldom tell lies. They are quick to ask forgiveness

from the individual that theylied to

Panic Liars are those who lie in order to avoid the consequences of confession. They

are afraid of embarrassment and they believe that confession will just make the matter

worse.

Occupational Liars are considered to be practical liars for they lie when it has a higher

“pay off” than telling the truth

Tournament Liars are those who love to lie and are excited by the challenge of not

being detected. For them an interview is a contest that they want to win; they realize
that they will probably be convicted but will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing

them confess.

Psychopathic Liars are the most difficult type; these persons have no conscience and

show no regret for dishonesty and manifestation of guilt.

Ethnological Liars are those who are taught not to be a squealer

Pathological Liars are persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to their

sick mind.

Black liars are persons who always pretend what he is and what he thinks of himself

White Liars are those who don’t usually think of themselves as true “liars”. They justify

their lies as harmless and beneficial.

● Familiar the procedures and techniques in using polygraph and other lie detection

techniques.
Familiar with the interpretation and analysis as indication of truth

and deception using polygraph machine and other similar

equipment
Identify the different parts of polygraph machine both analog and digital

machine

1. Analog Polygraph – a polygraph instrument that directly records the

responses of the subject on a piece

of chart.

2. Computerized Polygraph - a polygraph instrument capable of monitoring,

recording, storing, and

analyzing respiratory, electrodermal, and cardiovascular activity.

Main Components:

a. Pneumograph– It records the respiratory activity.

b. Cardiograph/ Cardiosphygmograph – It records the cardiovascular

activity.

c. Galvanograph – Component responsible for producing the graphic

recording of skin resistance or

Electrodermal Activity (EDA). EDA recently replaced the term Galvanic Skin

Response (GSR).

d. Kymograph – a motor that drives the polygraph chart under the recording

pen at a uniform rate of 1

division/ 5 seconds (1 division of the chart is equivalent to ½ inch). This

component is used only in analog

polygraphs in which the Polygram is produced simultaneously with the

application of stimulus.

Accessory Components:
Polygraph Chair – A chair designed to absorb concealed muscular

movements of the subject. To serve its purpose, additional recording

channel must be provided in the polygraph to register the movements of the

subject.

Plethysmograph – Device that measures changes in blood volume in a part

of the body. Two common types of plethysmographs are;

occlusion (use of inflatable cuff to restrict venous return while measuring

volume changes indirectly via

pressure or resistance) and;

photoelectric (use of infrared light emitter-collector diode pair that

measures volume changes indirectly

by directing light into the skin and detecting its reflection back).

Polygram – A graphic representation containing selected physiological data

generated by an examinee during the data collection phase of a polygraph

examination. Also refers to the physiologic recording of responses of the

examinee in response to stimuli. Also known as: (Polygraph Chart or Test

Data)

Types of Polygrams:

1. Analog polygrams

2. Computerized polygrams

Polygraphist – Someone who has successfully completed formal education

and training in conducting polygraph examinations and is either authorized

or formally certified, by the examiner’s agency, to conduct such

examinations.

Other names: (Polygraph Examiner, Forensic Psycho-physiologist and

Polygrapher)

● Identify who is a suitable person to undergo polygraph examination and its

limitation.

Limitations of the use of Polygraphy

1. It is accurate as the examiner is competent

2. It is an aid to investigation, not a substitute.

3. The test should not be administered without the consent of the subject

4. No indication will be given to any person or written in any report that a person is

guilty because he

refuses to take the test.

5. A test should not be administered until the accusations have been explained to the

subject.

6. Examination should not be conducted to an unfit subject

Limitations/Restrictions of the subject before the polygraph Examination

1. He must have a good night sleep for at least 5 hours.

2. Must refrain from smoking at least 2 hours prior to the test.

3. He should not undergo prolonged interrogation or interview prior to the test.

4. He must not be subjected to any physical abuse or body contact.

5. Must refrain from drinking alcoholic beverages, sedatives, capsule, syrup, for at least

12 hours prior to the test.

6. He must not be suffering from any temporary illnesses such as headache,

 toothache, fever, menstruation for female, severe colds, coughs, etc.

7. He must not be hungry.

8. He must not have sex indulgence prior to the test.

● Familiar with the guidelines in construction polygraph questions as accepted

formats used by scientific community.

● Familiar with the chart interpretations of polygraphic evidence but not limited to

chart markings, rules of chart interpretation, evaluation of polygraph results.

Signs and Symbols in Chart Markings

X- beginning or the start of the test.

XX- the end of the test.

/ //- when the question is asked, this mark is placed on the chart below the cardio tracing.

Single line indicates the beginning of the question, while double line indicates the

endning of the question.

+ - the subject answers the question with a “yes”

__ - indicates that the subject answers “no”

T------------T – talking by the subject other than the required answer.

TI- talking instructions

C- coughing. It is indicated below the pneumo tracing.

M-, M-----------------M- movements. It should be placed exactly above or below any break in

tracings.

MI- for movement instructions.

( ) or ( ) – mechanical adjustments.

CT- clearing of the throat.

OSN- outside noise.

S- means sigh

B- Burp or belch occurs.

L- laughter. It is placed below the break point of the pneumo tracing.

Y- Yawn

VC- Change of voice.

IM- involuntary movements.

ARM------------ARM- means there is discomfort.

BI- breathing instruction.\

RQ- repetition of the question.

PJ- paper jam

SN- Sniff. It should be placed below the pneumo tracing.

SZ- Sneeze

Cardinal Rules in Chart Interpretation

1. There must be a specific response. To be specific, the response must form deviation

from the norm.

2. It must appear in at least 2 test charts.

3. The best indication of deception is the simultaneous specific responses in the 3 tracings

of the chart.
CDI 6: FORENSIC BALLISTIC

PRINCIPLE OF FIREARM IDENTIFICATION (but not limited to bullet and shell examination)

Branches of Ballistic
7 Problems in Ballistics and Solution

THE SEVEN (7) TYPES OF PROBLEMS IN FIREARM IDENTIFICATION

Given a fired bullet determine the type and make of firearms from which it was fired;

Given a fired cartridge case, to determine the type and make of firearm in which it

was fired;

Given a bullet and a suspected firearm to determine whether or not the bullet was

fired from the suspected firearm;

Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not

the cartridge case was fired in the suspected firearm;

Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from the

same firearm

Given two or more fired cartridge cases to determine whether or not they were fired

from the same firearm;

Given a suspected firearm determine whether or not it is serviceable.

Identify the types of firearms, ammunition, and explosives based on their design, mechanism,

action, make, and purpose as basis for identification.

Identify different significant equipment and tools used in ballistics examination.