LESSON 1: MEASUREMENT AND VECTORS How do we resolve this?

This can be done thru

conversion of units.
Units of Measurement
It is important to note that there is another
Physics is a field of science that deals with the system of measurement being utilized by other
interaction of matter, force and energy. Many countries, and it is called the English system. Some
disciplines are anchored on fundamental physics basic units in this system are 1 inch = 2.54 cm and 1
concepts. Transportation, land and air, even outer pound = 4.448221615260 N.
space, rely on the concepts in physics. The very core
of matter which is the atom can be studied with You often hear that the prevailing speed in our
physics. Modern technologies are made possible national highway here in Palawan is 60 km/hr. (kph)
because of physics. Physics is both an exact and but some vehicles go even faster. Let us express 60
experimental science that leads to many useful kph in meters per second.
discoveries thru testing hypotheses where conclusions
Quantity Unit Symbol Definition
can be derived using precise measurements and Length Meter m This is distance
physical quantities. travelled by light in a
vacuum in 1/ 299,
CONVERSION 792, 458 second.
Mass Kilogram Kg It is the actual mass
1kg = 2.20562 lb of platinum – iridium
cylinder kept at the
1meter = 39.3701 inch International Bureau
of Weights and
1meter = 100cm Measures in Sevres,
France.
1ft = 30.48cm Time Second s This refers to the
duration for 9, 192,
1ft = 12inch 631, 770 cycles of
the microwave
radiation
1km = 0.621371 mile corresponding to
the transition
1lb = 0.453592 kg between two lowest
states of cesium
Physical Quantities and Units atom.
Temperature Kelvin K It means fraction of
We use a number to describe a physical 1/ 273.16 of the
phenomenon quantitatively and this number is called triple point of water.
physical quantity. In physics, physical quantities are Electric Ampere A This is the constant
Current current flowing in
expressed in terms of units of measurement which are each of two long
defined by standards. These standards are listed in the parallel wires, 1.0m
metric system, officially termed as International apart, that produce
between these wires
Standard or Systéme International (SI). a force to 2 x 10-7 N
per meter length of
The fundamental units, or base units, for the each wire.
fundamental physical quantities are meter, kilogram, Luminous Candela Cd One candela is the
second, kelvin, ampere, candela, and mole intensity luminous intensity,
in a given direction,
Conversion of Units of a source that
emits
monochromatic
If the fundamental unit for time is second, why radiation of
is the speed of a moving vehicle expressed in frequency 540 ×
kilometers per hour (kph)? This is further complicated 1012 Hz and that has
a radiant intensity in
in other countries, like UK or Australia, where speed is
that direction of
expressed in miles per hour (mph) or feet per second.
 1/683 watts per ∆t (= t2-t1), I’ts average velocity during that time
steridian.
interval is given by:
Amount of Mole Mol It refers to amount
substance of substance that ∆
contains as many Vavg = =
∆
atoms or molecules
as there are atoms in Average Speed: The average speed (S avg) during a
0.012kg of carbon -
12. time interval ∆t depends on the total distance the
Table 1. SI Fundamental Units particle moves in the time interval

Savg =
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol ∆
1024 yotta- Y 10-24 yocto- y
Magnitude – generally refers to the quantity or
1021 zetta- Z 10-21 zepto- z
1018 exa- E 10-18 atto- a
distance. In relation to the movement, we can correlate
1015 peta- P 10-15 femto- f magnitude with the size and speed of the object while
1012 tera- T 10-12 pico- p travelling. The size of the object or the amount is its
109 giga- G 10-9 nano- n magnitude.
106 mega- M 10-6 micro- µ
103 kilo- K 10-3 milli- m Scalar – is a quantity that is fully described by a
102 hecto- H 10-2 centi- c magnitude only. It is described by just a single
101 deka- Da 10-1 deci- d number. Some examples of scalar quantities include
Table 2. Metric Prefixes for Powers of 10 speed, volume, mass and time.
Vector – is a quantity that has both a magnitude and
Accuracy and Precision a direction. Vector quantities are important in the
Accuracy is how close a measurement is to the study of motion. Some examples of vector quantities
correct value for that measurement. On the other include force, velocity, acceleration and momentum.
hand, Precision states how well repeated
measurements of something generate the same or
similar results. DISTANCE vs DISPLA CEMENT
Distance is the measure of “how much ground an
object has covered during its motion” while
Branch of Physics that mainly deals about the study of Displacement refers to the measure of “how far out of
motion called Mechanics. place is an object.”
Mechanics is divided into two, Kinematics and SPEED vs VELOCITY
Dynamics.
Speed is the time rate at which an object is moving
 Kinematics – deals with the concepts that are along a path, while Velocity is the rate and direction
needed to describe motion without any of an object's movement
reference to forces, while
 Dynamics – deals with the effects that forces
have on motion. NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
Kinematics – is the study of how things move, while
Sir Isaac Newton
Dynamics – is the study of forces and motion. Lived from 1642 to 1727

Developed the 3 Laws of Motion

Displacement: The displacement ∆x the particle is the Published them in 1687
change in its
1st Laws of Motion
∆ = −
Inertia – a tendency to remain unchanged, or continue
Average Velocity: when a particle has moved from in an existing state.
position x1 to position x2 during a time interval
 “An object in motion will remain in motion, and an WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
object at rest will remain at rest, unless acted upon
by a force.” Homework is not work because objects are not
being moved over a distance. Lifting a rock up off the
Law of inertia ground is work because the rock is moving in the
direction that force is applied. Carrying a rock in a
1st rules – things like to stay where they are
straight path across the lawn at a constant speed is
2nd rules – unless acted upon at a force not a work. This is less obvious. Recall from the laws
of motion that force is not required to move an object
3rd rules – it will continue moving, unless air ground at a constant velocity. Therefore, while some force may
or obstacle stop it be applied to keep the rock up off the ground, no net
Equilibrium is the state in which all the forces on a force is applied to keep the rock moving forward at a
body are exactly in balance so that the body does not constant velocity.
move. When all the forces that act on an object are Work and Energy are closely related. Energy
balanced, then the object is said to be in a state of can be defined as the ability to do work. Energy can
equilibrium. take a variety of different forms, and one form of
Ex: An object at rest is in a state of equilibrium. energy can transform to another.

2nd Laws of Motion Mechanical energy comes in two forms: kinetic

energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is also
Acceleration of an object depends on the Mass of the called energy in motion. Potential energy is sometimes
object and the amount of force applied. called stored energy.
“Net force is equal to mass times acceleration” Work – is the product of the force and the
displacement resulting from the application of force
Weight is the force due to gravity. It is directed
W = Fd (Unit: Joule)
downward and it varies from location to location.
Energy – ability to do a work.
Mass is a universal constant which is a measure of the
inertia of a body. Potential Energy PE = mgd ( : )

Kinetic Energy KE = ( : )

Power – is the speed of rate of work. P = /

3rd Laws of Motion ( : )
Action reaction
“For every action, there’s an equal but opposite
reaction”
Gravitational potential energy is energy due to
position of an object relative to Earth’s ground. It is
given by the formula UG = mgh where m is the mass
of an object, g is the magnitude of the acceleration
due to gravity, and h is the height where the object is
located. Examples:

Newton’s Second Law, DOT product and work Given: A = 3.4N, B = 3.7N,
= cos90°
The second law can be stated in another way.
Just recall that acceleration Solution: A.B = A.B cos ;

a= A.B = (3.4N) (3.7N) (cos90°)

A.B = 0
If F = ma, then F = m

Ft =m vf – m vo
Given: A = 15N, B = 12N, =
In some cases, when displacement is related to cos45°
acceleration and time; then, the equation will be
Solution: A.B = A.B cos ;
d = ½ at2
A.B = (15N) (12N) (cos45°)
DOT product
A.B= 127.28 N
The dot product is derived from two vector
quantities and it is also called as the scalar product. In
this lesson even though two vectors are being WORK
multiplied the product is still a scalar quantity. A
certain point and its projection along with another This lesson is not new to you at all. Work can
point in relation to a certain cosine of the angle is what be described by anyone depending on their
this lesson will talk about. perception about it. On a daily basis, moving the
chair to a distance, lifting objects to a certain height,
Mathematically, the dot product or scalar product of and even the normal walking involve work.
two vector is A º B = AB cos where A and B are the
magnitudes of two vectors and cos is the smaller angle When a force succeeds in moving the body in
between the direction of the two vectors, simply put, which it acts then work exists. Work is a scalar quantity
two vectors with an angle in between them. and therefore there is no direction associated to it. The
SI unit of work is joule (J) or simply a combination of
Example: Calculate the dot product of two vectors A Newton meter (N.m) which is a force of one Newton in
and B, where A = 10 N and B =12 N separated by an a moving body through a distance of one meter. W =
angle of 45°. Fd.
Given: A = 10N, B = 12N, = cos45° Where,
Solution: A.B = A.B cos; W – work (J)
A.B = (10N) (12) (cos45°) F – force (N)
A.B= 84.85 d – distance (m)
Dot product may be viewed as the product of Work can also be written in this equation if height is
A and the projection of B along A. The common involved:
example of a dot product is work for it is a dot product
of both force and displacement and work is usually a W = mgh
scalar quantity. Dot product can also be calculated Where,
through component method. In equation: A.B =
A1B1+A2B2+A3B3. m = mass of an object (kg)
 g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2) as it is applicable universally, it is called as universal
law.
h = height (m)
Universal Gravitation Equation
If the force (F) and displacement (d) are not
parallel to each other, it says that only the component F=
of the force parallel to the displacement does the
work. Given the angle in between the directions of (F) Where, F is the gravitational force between bodies, m1
and (d), then the magnitude of the component of (F) and m2 are the masses of the bodies, r is the distance
parallel to (d) is F cos. If the calculated work is between the centers of two bodies, and G is the
negative, this means that force is acting in a direction universal gravitational constant.
opposite to the motion. This case is written in
equation as W = Fd (cos) If the force exerted is at the F = force
right angle to the displacement, then no work is done.
G = gravitational constant
Right angle is 90° and cos90° is equal to zero,
therefore work is equal to zero. m1 = mass of object 1
Example: A dog whose weight is 30 N runs up the m2 = mass of object 2
stairs where the vertical distance between the floors is
3.5 m. Calculate for the work done by gravity. Given: r = distance between centers of the masses
F = 30 N, d =3.5 m, cos180° FORMULAS
Solution: Gravitation Constant
W = Fd cos G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/ kg2
W = (30N) (3.5m) (cos180°) Gravitational force exerted between two objects
W = - 105 J
F=
Distance between the objects
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

WHAT IS THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION? r=

The gravitational force is relatively simple. It is
always attractive, and it depends only on the masses Mass of object 1
involved and the distance between them. Newton’s
Law of Universal Gravitation states that every particle m1 =
attracts every other particle in the universe with force
directly proportional to the product of the masses and Mass of object 2
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. m2 =
WHY THE GRAVITATIONAL LAW IS CALLED THE
UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION? Masses of objects

Newton’s law of gravity is considered m=

“universal” because it is believed to be applicable to
the entire
Universe. It is called so because it is applicable
GRAVITATION FIELD
on all bodies having mass (like the sun, moon, earth
or an apple) and the bodies will be governed by the Legend has it that Isaac Newton formulated
same Law that is Newton's law of gravitation. Newton's gravitational theory in 1665 or 1666 after watching
law of gravitation is valid anywhere in the universe
irrespective of the size and shape of the object. Thus,
an apple fall and asking why the apple fell straight • To measure the strength of the gravitational field at
down, rather than sideways or even upward. any point, measure the gravitational force F, exerted
on any mass m.
• GRAVITATIONAL FIELD is a region where a mass
experiences a force due to gravitational attraction. • Gravitational Field Strength, g = F/m and G (r) = Gmg
/r²
• The space or region around a body within which
other bodies experience its gravitational force of Its kilogram (N/kg).unit is newtons per
attraction is called a gravitational field.
Gravitational Field Strength, G(r) = Gmg / r²
• During the 19th century, the notion of the “field”
entered physics (via Michael Faraday). Gravitational Field Strength =( (
)(
)
)

Objects with mass create an invisible Where,

disturbance in the space around them that is felt by
G (r) = Earth’s gravitational field strength ( N/kg or
other massive objects – this is a gravitational field.
m/s² )
Gravitational Field inside a Planet
G = gravitational constant G= 6.67408 × 10-11 N m2
• If you are located a distance r from the center of a kg-2.
planet:
mg = mass of the Earth = 5.9722×10²⁴kg
1. All of the planet's mass inside a sphere of radius r
r = distance from the center of the Earth (m)
pulls you toward the center of the planet.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. All of the planet's mass outside a sphere of radius
r exerts no net gravitational force on you. Example 1: If the gravitational force and mass of a
substance are 10N and 5kg. Determine the
gravitational field.
• The blue-shaded part of the
Solution:
planet pulls you toward point C.
• The grey-shaded part of the The given parameters are, F = 10 N and m = 5 kg
planet does not pull you at all.
• Gravitational field value is 9.8 The formula for gravitational field intensity is given by,
m/s² on Earth.
g= = = 2 N/kg

Example 2: Calculate the gravitational field if the mass

Important Notes and force of a substance are given as 6kg and 36N,
respectively
• Take note: the unit meter per second squared or m/s²
is equivalent to newton per kilogram, N·kg−1, or N/kg. Solution:
Thus, the Earth’s gravitational field (near ground level)
can be quoted as 9.8 m/s² , or the equivalent 9.8 The given parameters are, F = 36 N and m = 6 kg
N/kg. The formula for gravitational field intensity is
• mE = mass of the Earth 5.9722×10²⁴kg expressed by,

G = gravitational constant G= 6.67408 × 10-11 N g= = = 6 N/kg

m2 kg
Gravitational Field Strength
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
• The intensity or strength of the gravitational field is
defined as the force experienced by a body of unit WHAT IS GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY?
mass placed at that point. • Gravitational Potential Energy is the energy
possessed or acquired by an object due to a change
in its position when it is present in a gravitational field.
In simple terms, it can be said that gravitational ORBITS
potential energy is an energy that is related to
gravitational force or to gravity. Artificial satellites orbiting the earth are a
familiar part of modern technology. But how do they
• Gravitational Potential Energy is defined as the stay in orbit, and what determines the properties of
energy stored in an object that is held in a vertical their orbits? We can use Newton’s laws and the law of
position due to the force of gravity working on it to gravitation to provide the answers. We’ll see in the
pull it down. The amount of gravitational potential next section that the motion of planets can be
energy depends on the mass and height of an object. analyzed in the same way.
Gravitational Potential Energy increases as weight A circular orbit, is the simplest case. It is also
and height increase. an important case, since many artificial satellites have
nearly circular orbits and the orbits of the planets
around the sun are also fairly circular. The only force
acting on a satellite in circular orbit around the earth
is the earth’s gravitational attraction, which is directed
toward the center of the earth and hence toward the
center of the orbit. This means that the satellite is in
uniform circular motion and its speed is constant. The
satellite isn’t falling toward the earth; rather, it’s
constantly falling around the earth. In a circular orbit
the speed is just right to keep the distance from the
• To calculate GPE use this equation satellite to the center of the earth constant.
gravitational potential energy (J) = The radius of the orbit is r, measured from the
center of the earth; the acceleration of the satellite has
mass (kg) x acceleration of gravity (m/s2) x
magnitude arad = v2 / r and is always directed toward
height (m) the center of the circle. By the law of gravitation, the
GPE = mgh net force (gravitational force) on the satellite of mass
m has magnitude Fg = GmEm /r2 and is in the same
• On Earth the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 m/s2 and direction as the acceleration. Newton’s second law
has the symbol g (in this equation). (F = ma) then tells us that

=
SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. Calculate the gravitational potential energy of a 4 Solving this to find the circular orbit, we find
kilograms object raised to a height of 5 meters.
SOLUTION v= (circular orbit)

Given: This relationship shows that we can’t choose the orbit

m = 4 kg radius r and the speed independently; for a given
radius r, the speed for a circular orbit is determined.
g =9.8 m/s²
h=5m
v=

GPE = ? To get an expression for T, we use the equation

above to solve for T and substitute:
GPE =mgh
/
GPE = (4kg)(9.8m/s2)(5m) T= = 2πr = (circular orbit)
GPE = 196 kg. m²/s² or 196 J
SAMPLE PROBLEM Kepler’s first law means that planets move
around the Sun in elliptical orbits. An ellipse is a shape
1. You wish to put a 1000-kg satellite into a circular
that resembles a flattened circle. How much the circle
orbit 300 km above the earth’s surface. What speed,
is flattened is expressed by its eccentricity. The
period, and radial acceleration will it have?
eccentricity is a number between 0 and 1. It is zero for
SOLUTION: a perfect circle. The eccentricity of an ellipse measures
how flattened a circle it is. For a perfect circle, a and
The radius of the satellite’s orbit is r = 6380 km + b are the same such that the eccentricity is zero.
300 km = 6680 km = 6.68 x 106 m. The orbital speed Earth’s orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167, so it is very
is nearly a perfect circle.

v=

( . ∙ / )( . )
= .

= 7720 m/s
To find the orbital period, we have:
( . )
T= = = 5440 s = 90.6 min
/

Finally, the radial acceleration is

( )
= = = 8.92 m/s2 LAW OF AREAS
.
The second law describes a line that connects
a planet to the sun and sweeps out equal areas in
KEPLER’S LAW OF PLANETARY MOTION equal times. When a planet is near the sun, it travels
faster and sweeps through a longer path in a given
The name planet comes from a Greek word
time.
meaning “wanderer,” and indeed the planets
continuously change their positions in the sky relative It follows from Kepler’s second law that Earth
to the background of stars. One of the great moves the fastest when it is closest to the Sun. This
intellectual accomplishments of the 16th and 17th happens in early January, when Earth is about 147
centuries was the threefold realization that the earth million km (91 million miles) from the Sun. When Earth
is also a planet, that all planets orbit the sun, and that is closest to the Sun, it is traveling at a speed of 30.3
the apparent motions of the planets as seen from the kilometers (18.8 miles) per second
earth can be used to precisely determine their orbits.
The first and second of these ideas were
published by Nicolaus Copernicus in Poland in 1543.
The nature of planetary orbits was deduced between
1601 and 1619 by the German astronomer and
mathematician Johannes Kepler, using a voluminous
set of precise data on apparent planetary motions
compiled by his mentor, the Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe.
LAW OF ORBITS
The first law explains that all planets move in
elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus. LAW OF PERIODS
 The third law mathematically expressed as the • Tangential Acceleration – it is the change in linear
square of the period of any planet is proportional to velocity divided by time.
the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
• Radius – a straight line from the center to the
circumference of a circle or sphere.
• Angular Position – the orientation of a body or figure
with respect to a specified reference position as
expressed by the amount of rotation necessary to
change from one orientation to the other about a
specified axis.
• Angular Velocity - is the time rate at which an object
rotates or revolves about an axis. Angular velocity is
represented by the Greek letter omega (ω, sometimes
Ω). It is measured in angle per unit time; hence, the SI
unit of angular velocity is radians per second.
• Angular Displacement – is defined as “the angle in
ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS radians (degrees, revolutions) through which a point
or line has been rotated in a specified sense about a
ROTATIONAL KINEMATICS specified axis”. It is the angle of the movement of a
body in a circular path.
Rotational motion is all around us from
molecules to galaxies. The earth rotates about its axis. • Kinematics – branch of dynamics that deals with
Wheels, gears, propellers, motors, the drive shaft in a aspects of motion apart from considerations of mass
car, a CD in its player, a pirouetting ice skater, all and force.
rotate. Our study of rotation is between linear motion
and rotational motion. In this lesson, we consider • Linear Velocity – is the measure of the rate of the
rotation about an axis that is fixed in space, or one change of displacement with respect to time when the
that is moving parallel to itself as in a rolling ball. object moves along a straight path.

Kinematics is the description of motion. It is • Radian – it is an angle whose corresponding arc in a

concerned with the description of motion without circle is equal to the radius of the circle.
regard to force or mass. But what exactly is rotational
kinematics? From the word, you can describe that it’s
all about any object that can rotate or spin. It’s Angular Displacement
different from linear motion when object simply moves
The symbol generally used for angular
forward. The kinematics of rotational motion describes
displacement is θ pronounced "teta" or "theta." θ is
the relationships among rotation angle (θ), angular
the angle swept by the radius of a circle that points to
velocity (ω), angular acceleration (α) , and time (t). You
a rotating object. Look at the circle below and assume
will find that translational kinematic quantities, such as its rotating about its middle so the axis of rotation is
displacement, velocity, and acceleration have direct
pointing out of the page. Start with a piece of the circle
analogs in rotational motion. at point A. as the circle rotates counterclockwise, the
Definition of Terms piece of the circle reaches point B. The point traveled
a distance of s along the circumference, and swept out
• Angular Acceleration – is defined as the time rate of an angle θ. We can also say that the angle θ
change of angular velocity. It is usually expressed in “substends’ an arc length of s. Note that the points A
radians per second is also known as rotational and B are always at the same distance, r, from the axis
acceleration. of rotation.
• Axis of Rotation – the imaginary or actual axis around We will now define the angle of rotation (θ) as
which an object may rotate. the ratio of the arc length (s) to the radius (r) of the
circle. We call this angle of rotation (θ) the angular
displacement. We denote angular displacement as Θ SAMPLE PROBLEMS
(theta). In symbol,
1. An object travels around a circle10.0 full turns in
θ= 2.5 seconds. Calculate (a) the angular displacement,
θ in radians.
Where,
Given:
is the angle of rotation, # of turns/complete rotations = 10 turns
S – is the arc length, and Time = 2.5 seconds
R – is the radius
Find: Angular displacement (θ) in radians

Note that 1 complete rotation = 360 degree = 2π

radians = 6.28 rd
SOLUTION:

θ=

The angle of Displacement θ = 10.0 turns (6.28 rd) = 62.8 radians

Angular displacement is unit less since it is the
ratio of two distances but, we will say that the angular Angular Velocity
displacement is measured in radians. We know
degrees, and we know that when a point on a circle In linear motion, velocity (v) is defined as the
rotates and comes back to the same point, it has rate of change of the object's position with respect to
performed one revolution; let us say from point A, and a frame of reference and time that is, = ∆ /∆ while
rotate until we come back to point A. acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity. In
symbol, we have:
Refer to Figure 2 again, what distance (s) was
covered? How many degrees were swept by this full ∆ ( − )
= ; =
rotation? The point moved around the entire ∆ ∆
circumference, so it traveled 2πr while an angle of 360
The symbol ω is pronounced "omega" is used to
degree was swept through. Using the angular
denote angular velocity.
displacement definition:
We usually describe the angular velocity as
2
= = =2 revolution per second (rev/sec, rps), or radian per
second. See Figure 1.3. You will often have to convert
360° = 2 this number, since it is usually given as a frequency
°
(revolutions per time frame)
1 = = 57. 3°

When an object makes one complete

revolution, it sweeps out an angle of 360 degree or
2π radians. One radian is the angle at which the arc
has the same length as the radius r.
1 radian = 57. 3 degree
The radian is frequently abbreviated as rad.

Angular Velocity

W
From linear velocity conversion, we have: = =
( ) ( )
ω= ( ) ( )
where;
In symbol,
ω is the angular velocity (rad/s),
v is the tangential velocity (m/s), and ∆ −
r is the radius in circular path (meters). = =
∆ −
Where:
Starting from angular velocity, let’s substitute the
linear displacement for the angular α = angular acceleration, (radians/s2)
displacement we have:
∆ = change in angular velocity (radians/s)
∆ ∆( ) ∆ = change in time (s)
= =
∆ ∆
= initial angular velocity (radians/s)
1∆ 1
= = = final angular velocity (radians/s)
∆
= = initial time (s)

SAMPLE PROBLEM = final time (s)

If an object travels around a circle with an angular
displacement of 70.8 radians in 3.0 seconds, what is
SAMPLE PROBLEM
its average angular velocity ω in (rd/s)
A disc in a DVD player starts from rest, and when the
GIVEN:
user presses “Play”, it begins spinning. The disc is
∆ = 70.8 rd; ∆ = 3 spins at 160 radians/s after 4.0 s. What was the
average angular acceleration of the disc?
Find: =?
GIVEN:
SOLUTION:
=0
∆ .
= ∆
= .
= 23.6 rd/s
=0
=0
ANGULAR ACCELERATION
= 160 /
If the angular velocity of the rotating object
=?
increases or decreases with time, we say that the
object experiences an angular acceleration, α. The SOLUTION:
angular acceleration of a rotating object is the rate at
− 160 /
which the angular velocity changes with respect to = =
time. It is the change in the angular velocity, divided − 4.00
by the change in time. The average angular 160 −0 /
acceleration is the change in the angular velocity, =
4.00 − 0
divided by the change in time. The angular
acceleration is a vector that points in a direction along = 40.0 /
the rotation axis. The magnitude of the angular
acceleration is given by the formula below. The unit of
angular acceleration is radians/s2.
 PERIODIC MOTION The period (T) of a body in periodic motion is
the time required to make a complete to – and – fro
Many kinds of motion repeat themselves over motion. One complete to – and – fro motion is called
and over – from the movement of the hands of a Clock, cycle. Referring to figure above, the motion of the
the swinging pendulum of a grandfather clock, a swing from position A to position C and back to
rocking chair, heartbeat, the sound vibrations position A is one cycle. Period is usually in seconds.
produced by a clarinet or an organ pipe, and the back
and-forth motion of the pistons in a car engine, and Frequency (f) is the number of the cycle per
even the movement of Earth about its axis and about unit time. It’s SI unit is the hertz. Abbreviated as Hz.
the sun. This kind of motion, called periodic motion or One (1) hertz equals one cycle per second. Frequency
oscillations. is the reciprocal of period.

Periodic motion is a motion of an object that 1

=
regularly repeat—the object returns to a given
position after a fixed time interval. With little thought,
Sometimes, angular frequency ( ) is use
we can identify several types of periodic motion in
instead of frequency. Angular frequency is commonly
everyday life. Your car returns to the driveway each
express in radians per second. The relationship
afternoon. You return to the dinner table every night
between angular frequency and frequency is given by
to eat. A bumped chandelier swing back and forth,
returning to the same position at a regular rate. The 2
=2 =
Earth return to same position in its orbit around the
Sun each year, resulting in the variation among the
four seasons. The Moon return to the same
relationship with the Earth and the Sun, resulting in a SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
full Moon approximately once a month.
In the previous lesson, we learned that a body
undergoes periodic motion always has a stable
equilibrium position. When it is moved away from this
position and released, a force comes into play to pull
it back toward equilibrium.
By the time it gets there, it picked up some
kinetic energy, so it overshoots, stopping somewhere
on the other side, and is again pulled back toward
equilibrium. For this lesson, we will recognize the
necessary conditions for necessary condition for a
periodic motion to be classified as a simple harmonic
The Motion of the swing is an example of periodic motion motion.

A body undergoing periodic motions always has a A very common type of periodic motion is
stable equilibrium position. what we called simple harmonic motion (SHM). It is a
type of periodic motion where the restoring force is
The equilibrium position, otherwise known as proportional to the displacement of the body from its
resting position, is the position assumed by the body equilibrium position. This restoring force act in a
when it is not vibrating. This equilibrium position is direction opposite that of the displacement.
represented by position B of the boy in the swing and
figure 3.1. When the boy is displaced from its In equation,
equilibrium position to position A, a restoring force
(gravity) acts on it to pull it back toward position B. = −

The amplitude (A) of vibration is the maximum Where,

displacement of a body from its equilibrium position. Fs is the restoring force or spring force
This is represented by the displacement from position
B to position A or from position B to position C. X is the displacement from the equilibrium position
k is a proportionality constant The forces acting on the bob are the force T
exerted by the string and the gravitational force mg.
= The tangential component mg sin θ Of the
The proportionality constant (k) is what we gravitational force always acts toward θ = 0, opposite
called the force constant of the spring. It is the force the displacement of the bob from the lowest position.
needed to produce a unit of elongation or Therefore, the tangential component is a restoring
compression of the spring and has the unit of N/m. force, and we can apply Newton’s second law for

The force constant k is measure of the stiffness The period of the motion is =2
of the spring. A small value of k indicates that the
spring can be easily stretched or compressed. In other The simple pendulum is another mechanical
words, springs with lesser spring constants will have system that exhibit periodic motion. It consists of a
greater displacements than those with larger spring particle-like bob of mass m suspended by a light string
constants for the same amount of force applied. of length L that is fixed at the upper end
Frequency When is small, a simple
1 pendulum oscillates in
= simple harmonic motion
2
about the equilibrium
Period position. = 0. The
restoring force is –mg
=2 sin , the component of
the gravitational force
tangent to the arc
SAMPLE PROBLEM The motion occurs in the vertical plane and it
is driven by the gravitational force. We shall show that,
An oscillating body takes 0.8 seconds to complete
provided the angle is small (less than about 10°), the
four cycles. What is the (a) period, (b) frequency, and
motion is very close to that of simple harmonic
(c) angular frequency of the body?
oscillator.
SOLUTION:
PLANET GRAVITY
a. We are asked to determine the time taken to
Mercury 3.7
complete one cycle.
Venus 8.87
0.8
= = = 0.2 Earth 9.81
4
Mars 3.71
b. = = .
= 5. 0 5.0
Jupiter 24.78
c. =2 = 2 (3.14 )(5.0 ) Saturn 10.4
= 31.4radians/s Uranus 8.87
Neptune 11.15

PENDULUM
A Pendulum is any object which can swing freely
from a pivot point under the influence of gravity.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE - Graphite - Oil
- Water - Diamond
- All other metals - Wood

Coulomb’s Law
- Charles – Augustin de Coulomb
- Born: June 14, 1736
• Positive charge:
- Died: August 23, 1806
When an object has a positive charge, it means
that it has more protons than electrons - French Physicist
• Negative charge: - Formulate the Coulomb’s Law

When an object has a negative charge, it - Which states that the force between two electrical
means that it has more electrons than protons charges is proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of
• Neutral charge: the distance between them
When an object has an equal number of - Gives the electric force between two point charges
protons and electrons it means the object is neutrally
charged F=
²
The law for electrostatic charge simply tells us k = Coulomb’s constant = 9.0x109 Nm2/C2
that as charges repel and unlike charges attract.
q1 = Point charge 1
PROCESS OF CHARGING
q2 = Point charge 2
Charging by Friction – in involves rubbing of one
particle on another resulting in electrons moving from r = the distance between the two charges
one surface to another. This method is useful for
charging insulators
Charging by Conduction – involves touching of a 1cm = o.o1m
charged particle to a conductive material. This way, the 1mC = 1x10-3 C
charges are transferred from the charged material to 1μC = 1x10-6 C
the conductor. This method is useful for charging 1nC = 1x10-9 C
conductors
Charging by Induction - a charging method that
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
charges an object without actually touching the object
to any other charged object. The charging by induction 1. A +10μC charge is 25cm away from a -20μC point
process is where the charged particle is held near an charge. Calculate the magnitude of the electric force
uncharged conductive material that is grounded on a between them
neutrally charged material. The charge flows between
two objects and the uncharged conductive material Given:
develop a charge with opposite polarity. These were
the different methods of charge transfer. Here, in the K = 9.0x109 q1 = +10μC = 10x10-6
article let us learn more about the method of charging r = 25 = 0.25 q2 = -20μC = -20x10-6
by induction (10x10 )(−20x10−6 )
−6
F= 9.0x109
CONDUCTOR INSULATOR ( . )²
- Copper - Rubber = -28.8 or -2.88 x 10 1
- Gold - Glass
2. The electric force between two point charges with
a magnitude of +800nC and +900nC is 15N, How far
apart are the two charges from each other in
centimeters?
Given:
K = 9.0x109 q1 = 800nC = 8000x10-9 If there are multiple point charges, the forces
add by superposition. According to this superposition
F = 15N q2 = 900nC = 900x10-9
principle, the total force acting on a given charge is
equal to the vector sum of forces exerted on it by all
3. A force of 500N exists between two identical point the other charges.
charges separated by a distance of 40cm. Calculate
All the charged particles will experience a
the magnitude of the two points charges.
force around them. And that region around an
electrical charge particle where force is detected is
called Electric Field.
ELECTRIC FORCES AND ELECTRIC FIELDS
The strength of the electric field is defined to be the
Pairs of electrical charges interact with each force per unit charge experienced by any test point
other according to the Law of Electric Charge. The charge
attractive or repulsive interaction between any two
Electric Field Strength
charged objects is an Electric Force (Felectric)
( )
The electric force between two charges is = Unit of EF: =
( )
given by Coulomb’s Law. Coulomb’s law states that
the electric force between two charges is proportional Combining the equation of electric field
to the product of the charges and inversely strength and Coulomb’s law, the electric field strength
proportional to the square of the distance between around a charge I,
them.
=
A shorter distance between chargers will
experience a greater electric force, the farther the A convenient aid for visualizing electric field patterns
distance gives weaker electric force is to draw electric field lines. They consists of lines
drawn tangent to the electric field vector at any point.
The proportionality constant k for The number of lines drawn being proportional to the
Coulomb’s law depends on the choice of units for magnitude of the field strengths
charge
Electric Field Lines are imaginary lines drawn
in such way that their direction at any point is the
=
same as the direction of the field at that point
Field lines go away from positive charges and
toward negative charges
∙
= 8.99 10

Unit: N ELECTRIC DIPOLE

SAMPLE PROBLEM is an electromagnetic phenomenon which

occurs in two ways: An electric dipole deals with
1. The electron and proton of a hydrogen atom are separation of the positive and negative electric
separated (on average) by a distance of approximately charges found in any electromagnetic system
5.3 x 10-11m. Find the magnitude of the electric force

ELECTRIC SUPERPOSITION
Force on any charge due to a number of other charges
is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due
to the other charges, taken one at a time
 The individual forces are unaffected due to the would have to be done on it to move it the same
presence of other charges. This is termed as the distance. The electric potential energy per charge is
principle of superposition. the total electric potential energy divided by the
amount of charge. At any location the potential energy
per charge – whatever the amount of charge – will be
SAMPLE PROBLEM the same. We then define the electric potential V
through the relation
A charge of 1.5C present in an electric field
produces a force of 0.06N. What is the intensity of the A Van de Graaff generator
electric field? Pulls electrons from the earth, moves them
along a belt and stores them on the large sphere. These
electrons repel each other and try to get as far away
from each other as possible, spreading out on the
surface of the sphere.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Electric Charge Electric Field

The S.I unit measurement for electric potential is the
colt (V) named after the Italian physicist Alessandro
Volta. Since potential energy is measured in joules and
charge is measured in coulombs,

1 =1

Electric potential is also known as the amount of work

Electric Force Electric Dipole needed to move a unit charge from a reference point
to a specific point against an electric field, measured
in Joules per Coulomb (J/ C) or Volts (V).
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY: VOLTAGE Point Charge
Electric potential is the amount of work The electric potential at a distance r from a single
needed to move a unit charge from a reference point point charge Q can be derived from the expression for
to a specific point against an electric field. Consider its electric field (E = kQ/ r2). The result is
the electric field created by a positively charged Van
de Graaff generator. The direction of the electric field = =
is in the direction that a positive test charge would be
pushed; in this case, the direction is outward away Superposition of electric potential consider three
from the Van de Graaff sphere
charges q1, q2, q3. The electric potential due to these
Work would be required to move a positive charges at any given point is the sum of the electric
test charge towards the sphere against the electric potentials of all the charges.
field. The greater the charge on the test charge, the
greater the repulsive force and the more work that = + +
 = + +

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Electric potential energy can be defined as the
capacity for doing work that arises from position or
configuration. In the electrical case, a charge will exert
a force on any other charge and potential energy
arises from any collection of charges. For example, if
a charge Q is fixed at some point in space, any other
positive charge which is brought close to it will
experience a repulsive force and will therefore have
potential energy. Where k is Coulomb’s constant (9 x
109 Nm2/ C2).

CAPACITOR

Michael Faraday
SAMPLE PROBLEM Faraday invented the first electric motor, the
first electrical transformer, the first electric generator
If a charge of magnitude 6.5x10 C is being held in
and the first dynamo, so Faraday can be called,
place 2x10 m from a charge of -8x10 C which is without any doubt, the father of electrical engineering.
also being held in place, what is the electric potential
energy of the system? The farad (symbol: F) is the unit of electrical
capacitance, the ability of a body to store an electrical
SOLUTION charge,
U=? Simple Circuit
q1 =6.5x10 C

q2 = -8x10 C

r = 2X 10

U = (9.0x10 6.5 10 − 8 10 )

(2x 10 )

U = -2.34 10 J
 This capacitor type can help out in many
different applications such as audio and RF due to
their economical prices as well as their reliability.
Ceramic capacitor values start from a few pico-farads
up to 0.1 micro-farads.

• Electrolytic capacitors
His polarized capacitor type is great for low-
frequency applications such as audio coupling and
Different Types of Capacitors power supplies applications. They can provide high
capacitance values that are usually somewhere above
There are two major types of capacitors: Fixed
1μF.
Capacitors and Variable Capacitors. These two contain
different types of capacitors including non-polarized
and polarized for the fixed group and tuning and
trimming for the variable group.

• Film and paper capacitors

The metalized polyester film capacitor is made
from a polyester film capacitor that is metalized.
1. Fixed Capacitors
Fixed capacitors are among the major types of
capacitors. These ones have fixed capacitance values.
2. Variable Capacitors
These ones, on the contrary, have adjustable
capacitance values (these values are tunable)

FIXED CAPACITORS CONTAIN DIFFERENT TYPES

SUCH AS:
• Super capacitors
• Ceramic capacitors
 The super capacitor also goes by the name
“supercap” or “ultra-capacitor”. This capacitor is also
among popular types of capacitors and provides very
large values of capacitance considered to be up to
several thousand Farads.

• Glass, air-gap, vacuum, silicon, silver mica capacitors

This capacitor uses glass as the dielectric and
hence the name. They have high levels of performance SERIES & PARALLEL CAPACITORS
due to their low loss.
SERIES

+ + + +...+

= = = ... =

checking
= + + ... +

PARALLEL

= + + ... =

= = = ... =

checking
= + + ... +

The Series Combination of Capacitors

As for any capacitor, the capacitance of the
combination is related to both charge and voltage

= = =
 This occurs due to the conservation of charge
in the circuit. When a charge Q in a series circuit is
removed from a plate of the first capacitor (which we
denote as –Q), it must be placed on a plate of the
second capacitor (which we denote as +Q), and so on.

The Parallel Combination of Capacitors

A parallel combination of three capacitors,
with one plate of each capacitor connected to one side
of the circuit and the other plate connected to the
However, each capacitor in the parallel network may
other side. Since the capacitors are connected in
store a different charge. To find the equivalent
parallel, they all have the same voltage V across their
capacitance CT of the parallel network, we note that
plates.
the total charge Q stored by the network is the sum
= = = =⋯ of all the individual charges:

= + + +⋯

We can find an expression for the total (equivalent) On the left- hand side of this equation, we use the
capacitance by considering the voltages across the relation Q = CTV, which holds for the entire network.
individual capacitors. The potentials across capacitors
= + + +⋯
1, 2, and 3 are, respectively,
This equation, when simplified, is the expression for
= = = the equivalent capacitance of the parallel network of
three capacitors:
These potentials must sum up to the voltage of the
battery, giving the following potential balance: = + + +⋯

= + + +⋯ SAMPLE PROBLEM

Potential V is measured across an equivalent capacitor Four capacitors with the capacitance of 4 , 3 ,
that holds charge Q and has an equivalent capacitance 6 , and 12 respectively are connected in parallel
CS. Entering the expressions for V1, V2, and V3, we get with a battery of 12.0 V. Determine the following:
1 1 1 1 (a) Equivalent capacitance
= + + +⋯
(b) Total charge
SAMPLE PROBLEM
(c) Individual voltage
Four capacitors with the capacitance of 4 , 3 ,
6 , and 12 respectively are connected in series
with a battery of 12.0 V. Determine the following:
(a) Equivalent capacitance
(b) Total charge
(c) Individual voltage
 POTENTIAL ENERGY IN A CAPACITOR C=

= C C=4F

Q = 3. (a) How much energy is stored if 500C of charge

rests on a 10 capacitor?
= QV
U=
P=
( )
U=
= /C
U = 12,500 J
SAMPLE PROBLEM
(b) What is the voltage across this capacitor?
1. (a) How much energy can be stored if 10V is
applied to a 5F capacitor? Q = CV

U= = =V

50V = V
U= (5 )(10 )

U = (2.5) (100)
U = 250J
(b) If this energy can be released in 0.01 seconds,
what is the power exerted by the capacitor during
this time?

P=

P= .

P = 25,000 w

2. It takes 20V to store 80C of charge on a certain

capacitor.
(a) How much potential energy is stored in this
capacitor?

U=

U= (80 )(20 )

U = (40) (20)
U = 800 J
(b) Calculate the capacitance of this capacitor.
Q =CV

C=