CHAPTER 4

Introduction to Operational
Amplifiers

1
4.1 Introduction

2
4.1 Introduction
 Op-amp, consisted of transistors and resistors,
is the single most important integrated circuit for
analog circuit design.
 Originally, the op-amp was designed to perform
mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, differentiation, and integration.
 By adding simple networks, we can create these
“building blocks” as well as voltage scaling,
current-to-voltage conversion, and much more
complex applications.

3
4.1 Introduction
 A selection of op-amps.
a. b.

c.

d.

Figure 4.1 (a) Figure 4.1 (b)

a. A discrete op-amp assembled on a The APEX PA03 with its lid removed
printed circuit board (PCB) showing individual transistors and resisters.
b. LM324 dual in-line package (DIP) (Left, Courtesy of Mark Nelms and Jo Ann Loden;
right; Courtesy of Milt Perrin, Apex Microtechnology Corp.)
c. LMC6492 DIP
d. MAX4240 in a SO-5 package(small
outline/pins)
4
4.2 Op-Amp Models

5
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 LM 324 quad op-amp DIP package.
Figure 4.2 : The pinout and dimensional diagram of the LM324 quad op-amp.

Op-Amp

Output Vo Connected to the power supply

Inverting input Noninverting input

• There are four identical op-amps in the package.

• A relationship between the output and input voltages,
Vo  Ao ( IN   IN  )
• Ao is the gain of the op-amp.
6
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 LM 324 quad op-amp DIP package.
Vo  Ao ( IN   IN  )

• When IN  increases, so will Vo ; IN  called noninverting input.

• When IN  increases, Vo will decrease; IN  called inverting input.
• Typical values for Ao are between 10,000 and 1,000,000,

 Power supply connection in op-amp

• Amplification requires power that is provided by the dc voltage
sources connected to VCC and VEE .

Dual-supply implementation Single-supply implementation

7
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Op-Amp model
• A dependent source can produce Vo .
• The currents into and out of op-amp terminals are fairly
proportional to the pin voltages.
→We model the I-V performance with two resistors, one at the
input terminals(Ri ) and another at the output (Ro ).

Ri : Input resistor

Ro : Output resistor

Voltage source

Ao : Gain
Figure 4.4
A simple model for the gain characteristics of an op-amp
8
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 A network with Op-amp
• To expect the values for Ri , Ro , and Ao, the equivalent circuit is
Op-amp
Driving circuit Load

 Ri   RL 
Using vin   VS , vo    Ao vin
 Ri  RTh1   RL  Ro 
vo  Ri   RL 
The overall gain   Ao  
VS  Ri  RTh1   Ro  RL 

To maximize the gain regardless of RTh1 and RL.

Ao  , Ri  , Ro  0
9
 4.2 Op-Amp Models
 A list of commercial op-amps
The ideal op-amp requires that Ao  , Ri  , Ro  0

Manufacture Part no. Ao (V/V) Ri (MΩ) Ro (Ω) Comments

General purpose, up to +/-16 V supplies,
National LM324 100,000 1.0 20
very inexpensive.
Low voltage, rail-to-rail inputs and
National LMC6492 50,000 107 150
outputs
Micro-power (1.8 V supply @ 10μA), rail-
Maxim MAX4240 20,000 45 160
to-rail inputs and outputs
High-voltage, +/-75 V and high output
Apex PA03 125,000 105 2 current capability, 30A.
That’s 2 kW

The actual values of Ao , Ri and Ro for some commercial op-amps

intended for very different applications.
While Ao , Ri and Ro are not ideal, they do have the correct
tendencies.
10
 4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Transfer plots for the commercial op-amps
• Each op-amp has minimum and maximum supply ranges over which the
op-amp is guaranteed to function.
• The input /output voltages are limited to no more than the supply voltages.
• If the input/output can reach within a few dozen millivolts of the supplies,
then the input/output are called rail-to-rail.
• Otherwise, limits are more severe-usually a volt or more.
Saturation region Figure 4.6
Transfer plot for the commercial op-
Linear region amps.
The supply voltages are listed in the
plot legends.
Note that the LMC 6492 and
MAX4240 have rail-to-rail output
(output voltage range extends to
power supply values), while the
LM324 and PA03 do not.
11
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Example 4.1
• Determine (a) if the op-amp circuit is linear and (b) the circuit’s gain.
Linear region

The linear region is

t=0 to 1.25, 2.5 to 4, 6 to 7 ms
The saturation region is
t=1.25 to 2.5, 4 to 6 ms

When t=0 to 1 ms
the input changed by 1V
the output changed by 3.3V
Therefore, the circuit’s gain is 3.3

12
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Unity gain buffer
Using
op-amp
model

Writing loop equation for I  VS  Ri I  Ro I  AoVin  0

At input/output pin Vin  IRi
Vo  IRo  AoVin
For Ro  Ri , Ao  1
Solving for the gain, Vo  1
VS 1  Ri Vo
  1 Unity gain !!
Ro  Ao Ri VS
13
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Ideal model for Op-amp

Model Terminal
Assumption Result
Ao   input voltage  0 V
Ri   input current  0 A

Since Ri is extremely large, the input currents are approximately zero.

i  i  0
If vo is bounded, as Ao   when vo  Ao (v  v ) , the voltage across
the input terminals v  v must be zero.
v  v
The difference ve  v  v is often called the error signal.
The ground terminal is necessary for signal current return, and it guarantees
Kirchhoff’s current law.
14
 4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Unity gain buffer with ideal op-amp

For ideal op-amp, Vin is zero When there are RS and RL.
→The voltage of non-inverting input ⅰ) The gain is still unity V  V .
o S
is same as the voltage of inverting ⅱ) The op-amp requires no current
input VS . (i.e.,v  v  VS ) from the driving circuit.
Since the inverting input is connected ⅲ) The output current comes from
with the output the power supplies.
→ Vo  VS Unity gain !! Isolation of current is called buffering
15
4.2 Op-Amp Models
 Isolation capability of a voltage follower. Unity gain buffer
=Voltage follower

Vo  VS  IRS The op-amp requires no current

I 0
Since the gain is unity
The RS caused Vo is less
Vo  VS
than VS .
The energy of resistive network comes
The energy of resistive network from the power supply of the amp.
comes from the source VS . Little or no energy is drawn from VS
The voltage follower isolates one
circuit from another.
16
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp
Circuits

17
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 To analyze op-amp circuits: write nodal equations at op-amp input
terminals using ideal op-amp model conditions

 Example 4.2
• Determine the gain of the basic inverting op-amp using
(a) non-ideal op-amp and (b) ideal op-amp.

non-ideal
op-amp model
18
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.2
(a) non-ideal op-amp
v1  vS v1 v1  vo
  0
R1 Ri R2
vo  v1 vo  Ave
 0
R2 Ro

Using ve  v1
1 1 1 
1  1     vS 
 v1  1  R2 Ro
1 1
        vS  R2
 R1 Ri R2  2
R  v        R1 
1
  R1   vo    1  A     0 
  1 1 1
  1 A 1 1  vo   

       0  R2 Ro R1 Ri R2 
  2R Ro R2 Ro 

19
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.2  1 A  vS
  
v   R2 Ro  R1
Hence, o
 1 1 1  1 1   1  1 A
          
 R1 Ri R2  R2 Ro   R2  R2 Ro 
Therefore, vo  R2 / R1 
the overall gain is 
vS  1 1 1  1 1   1  1 A 
1           
 R1 Ri R2  R2 Ro   R2  R2 Ro 

If we now employ typical values for the circuit parameters

A  105, Ri  108 , Ro  10 , R1  1 k, R2  5 k,
vo
the gain is  4.9996994  5.000
vS
However, the ideal op-amp has infinite gain
v  R
lim  o    2  5.000
A   v S  R1
20
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.2
(b) ideal op-amp
In ideal model, i  i  0, v  v
0V

Vout R
0V   2
Vs R1
The gain is simple resistor ratio.
So, we can control the gain value by changing only on resistor.
Also, the gain is independent of op-amp parameters.
Since the precise values of Ao , Ri and Ro are sensitive to such factors as
temperature, radiation, and age, their elimination results in a gain that is
stable regardless of the immediate environment.

21
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Problem solving strategy
• Op-Amp circuits
− Step 1. Use the ideal op-amp model: Ao  , Ri  , Ro  0
i  i  0 v  v
− Step 2. Apply nodal analysis to the resulting circuit.
− Step 3. Solve nodal equations to express the output voltage in
terms of the op-amp input signals.

22
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.3
• Determine the gain of the basic non-inverting op-amp.

v  v  vin
vin vo  vin
KCL 
RI RF
1 1 v
vin (  ) o
RI RF RF
vo R
  1 F
vin RI

Note the similarity of this case to the inverting op-amp configuration.

We find that the gain in this configuration is also controlled by a simple
resistor ratio but is not inverted; that is, the gain ratio is positive.

23
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.4  actual gain  ideal gain 
• Gain error is defined as: GE    100 %
 ideal gain 
Show that for a standard non-inverting configuration with Ao ,
 100 % R1
the gain error is: GE  where  
1  Ao  R1  R2
vo
vS  vin  v1 vin 
Ao
R1
v1  vo   vo
R1  R2

1  1  Ao  
vS  vo      vo  
 o
A   Ao 


vo

Ao Recall ideal gain R 1  100 %
1 F   GE 
vS 1  Ao  of non-inverting RI  1  Ao 
amp :
24
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.5
• Determine an expression for the output voltage.
v1  v vo  v
Differential amplifier
KCL at v   i
R1 R2
v 2  v  v
KCL at v   i
R3 R4
Using v  v v1  v vo  v
 0
i  i  0 R1 R2
v2  v v

R3 R4
R2  R1  R4 R
Solving two equations for vo : vo  1   v2  2 v1
R1  R2  R3  R4 R1
If we choose R3  R1 , R4  R2
R2 This op-amp can be employed to
 vo  (v2  v1 )
R1 subtract two input voltages.
25
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.6
• Derive an expression for v o of a precision differential voltage-gain
device in terms of the two inputs.

KCL at v1 and v 2

v1  vo v1  va v1  v2
  0
R2 R1 RG
v2  va v2  v1 v2
Using
  0
R1 RG R2
i  i  0
v  v Eliminating v a
 R2 2 R2 
 vo  (v1  v2 )1   
 R1 RG 

26
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example
Find the output voltage in the following circuit

Applying KCL at node a

27
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.7
The two op-amp circuits shown in this figure
produce an output given by the equation

Vo(max) = 8(2) – 4(2) = 8V and V0(min) = 8(1)-4(3) = -4V

And thus the range of V0 is -4V to +8V

28
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.7

Consider first the network in figure (a).

The signal at Vx , Vx = 2V1-V2
Vx(max) = 2(2)-2 = 2V , when V1=2V and V2=2V
Vx(min) = 2(1)-3 = -1V, when V1=1V and V2=3V

The ouput of the second op-amp in this

circuit is given by the expression V0 = 4Vx.

Since this range is also within the power supply voltages, the
second op-amp will not saturate.

29
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Example 4.7

Next, consider the network in fig (b).

This circuit will saturate and fail to produce the

full range of V0

30
4.3 Fundamental Op-Amp Circuits
 Negative feedback vs. positive feedback
• In this chapter, the output is connected to the inverting input of
op-amp through a resistive network.
• Negative feedback allows linear operation of the op-amp.
• Almost all op-amp circuits utilize negative feedback.
• However, positive feedback is utilized in oscillator circuits, the
Schmitt trigger, and the comparator.
• As a result of positive feedback, the output
value of this op-amp circuit has two possible
values VCC or VEE .
• Analysis using ideal op-amp model present in
this chapter does not predict this result.
Op-amp circuit with • The ideal op-amp model may only be utilized
positive feedback when negative feedback is present in the op-
amp circuit.
31
4.4 Comparators

32
4.4 Comparators
 Comparator
• A comparator is designed to compare the non-inverting and
inverting input voltages.

An ideal comparator and its transfer curve.

• When the non-inverting input voltage is greater, the output goes
as high as possible, at or nearVCC .
• If the inverting input voltage is greater the output goes as low as
possible, at or near VEE .
• op-amps are not designed to operate with the output saturated,
whereas comparators are.
• As a result, comparators are faster and less expensive than op-
amps. 33
 4.4 Comparators
 Comparator
Product Min. supply Max. supply Supply current Max. output current Typical Rpull-up
LM339 2V 36 V 3 mA 50 mA 3 kΩ
MAX919 2.8 V 5.5 V 0.8 μA 8 mA NA

• LM339 is general-purpose comparator.

• LM339 requires a resistor called a pull-up resistor, connected between
the output pin and VCC .
• MAX919 is intended for low-power applications.
pull up resistor
• A common comparator application
is the zero-crossing.
• When VS is positive, Vo should be
near +5 V and when VS is negative
Vo should be -5 V.
Vo
A zero-crossing detector and the corresponding • The output changes value on every
input/output waveforms zero crossing!
34
4.5 Application Examples
 Example 4.8
In a light meter, a sensor produces a current proportional to the intensity of the
incident radiation.
- To obtain a voltage proportional to the light’s intensity and to select a value
of R that will produce an output voltage of 2 V for each 20 μA of sensor current.
- Assume that the sensor has zero resistance.

Applying KCL at the op-amp input

𝐼 = 𝑉0 /𝑅
𝑉0
Since 𝑖𝑠 105
𝐼
𝑅 = 100 𝑘Ω

35
4.5 Application Examples
 Example 4.9
• An electronic ammeter operates as follows; The unknown current I
through RI produces a voltage,V I . V I is amplified by the op-amp
to produce a voltage, Vo , which is proportional to I .
• Find the value of R2 such that 10 V appears at Vo for each mA of
unknown current.

0 mA Non-inverting amplifier

VI  IR I
VI VI  R2 
Vo  VI  R2 
Vo  VI 1  
R1  R1 

Electronic ammeter  R2 
Using the values 10  1m  1k 1  
 1k 
 R2  9 k
36
4.5 Application Examples
 Example 4.11
• Amplifier should have high-input resistance and achieve a voltage gain
Vo/(V1 − V2) of 10.
• Let’s analyze this circuit, select the resistor values, and explore the validity
of this configuration.
Differential amplifier configuration. Ex 4.5 indicates that
the voltage gain for this portion of the network is

And if , the equation reduces to

Ned to express Vx and Vy in terms of V1 and V2, to

equate for the overall voltage. Applying KCL at node A
yields
or

37
4.5 Application Examples
 Example 4.11
By combining the output voltage:

If R1 = R2, then the voltage gain is

At node B we obtain
For a gain of +10, we set R1 = 4.5 R.
or To maintain low power, need to use large values
If R = 100 kΩ and R1 = R2 = 450 kΩ.
Use 100 kΩ resistors in the differential amplifier
stage as well.

38
4.6 Design Examples
 Example 4.12
• Construct an amplifier that will reduce a very large input voltage (i.e., Vin
ranges between ±556 V) to a small output voltage in the range ∓5 V.
Use only two resistors.
- Since we must reduce +556 to −5 V, the use of
an inverting amplifier seems to be appropriate.

- Input/output relationship for the circuit is

- Since the circuit must reduce the voltage, R1

must be much larger than R2.
- By trial and error, R1 = 33 kΩ and R2 = 300 Ω.
- For Vin = 556 V, the resulting Vo is 5.054 V,
resulting in a error of 1.08%.

39
4.6 Design Examples
 Example 4.13
• Design a noninverting op-amp configuration with two resistors under the
following conditions: gain: +9, input range: ±2 V, and total power consumed
by the resistors <100 mW.

Need R2/R1 = 8.
If R1 = 3 kΩ ⇒ R2 = 24 kΩ,

Power limitation can be

formalized, where the maximum
input voltage (2 V) is applied.

Total power dissipated by the

resistors is

For the standard noninverting configuration in

gain is:

- Minimum value for R1 is 360 kΩ.

40
4.6 Design Examples
 Example 4.14
• Design a weighted-summer circuit that will produce the output

• Use one op-amp and no more than three resistors.

• Minimize power while using resistors no larger than 10 kΩ.

A standard weighted-summer configuration.

To find values for the 3 resistors

Using KCL, we can write

where

Combining these relationships yields

Therefore, we require
The largest resistor is R2 and R is the smallest.
Note that the R/R1 ratio can be expressed as 27/30.
To minimize power, we should use the largest possible resistor values.
Best resistor values are R = 270 Ω, R1 = 300 Ω, and R2 = 2.7 kΩ 41
 Summary
• Op-amps are characterized by
High-input resistance
Low-output resistance
Very high gain
• The ideal op-amp is modeled using
i  i  0
v  v
• Op-amp problems are typically analyzed by writing node
equations at the op-amp input terminals.
• The output of a comparator is dependent on the difference in
voltage at the input terminals.

42