HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS If you want to find the secrets of the universe think. in terms of energy, frequency and vibrations, Nikola Tesla ENGINEERING INTEREST Vibration is omnipresent. Engineers find vibration as a boon in many fields. Thorough knowledge of vibration gives insight for design of musical instruments and its upgrading. Most of the musical notes can be made electronically. Road rollers induce vibration in the ground to compact soil or asphalt. A vibrator is used after pouring concrete to remove air voids in cast, In complexmachinery the vibration and acoustic signature determine the health ofthe system. Any vibration failure can be warned. In order to demolish big structures ic drills and hammers are used in construction industry. aot Most of the machines are noisy. Noise i most important design goals of engineers is the Civil engineers are looking for sound barriers fo It is a challenging and highly demanding very good noise reduction due to careful cars irrespective of engine vibration. the comfort of the passengers. To do softwares in analysis and design worl Athorough understating.Oscillations and Vibrations are very common otona Movements of lungs, molecular oscillations, lattice vibrations eieett be, : atruetures like buildings and bridges, machine vibrations, vibratj sn ofa anid magnetic felds of light ete, are examples. Such motions can Biter Sf electic Harmonie funetions like Sines and cosines and hence called harmonic mes ®4by Perlodic motion stint Any motion which ropeats itself Called periodic mation, Swinging of pendulum of a wall clock, oscillation of Lc circuit, Swinging bet} ‘migration of birds, circadian rhythm like heart beat at normal Conditions, rotation, and revolutions of the eart h, plucked String of a guitar etc. are Allrepeating motions need not be periodic, for example, the swi Oscillation in an equal interval of time is periodic Motions, inging of our arms 4 motion in which the body as a whole moves to-and-fro about its mean position is called oscillatory motion. Motion ofa simple pendulum and | at which the resultant force acting on the oscillating body becomes Zero, is called the equilibrium Position. The uniform circular motion is Periodic but not oscillatory. The motion in which certain Parts or part of a body move(s) to and fro is called vibratory motion. ucked guitar string, motion of piston ina Car, various parts of a motor driven machine, rattling sound ofa car, etc, are examples, HARMONIC OSCILLATOR The simplest of the harmonic motions is the simp executing simple harmonic motionis called a h A particle is said to be in SHM its displacement and directed toaFe. ‘Spring-black system without friction Let x be the stretching of the spring from the equilibrium position. The position at which the resultant force zero is called equilibrium position. Here the displacement vector x is opposite to the spring force F. It is found that the restoring force is proportional to the displacement. Therefore, F=-Cx (1) where the negative sign shows that force and displacement are opposite in direction. Dividing both sides by mass m of the block, m ess or a ie, acceleration =-w'x where «= C/m, a positive constant and C is the force constant. This means that the acceleration of the block is directly proportional to the. from Examples for SHM are the following. . Oscillation of simple pendulum. Vibration of gong of a bell. Vibration of quartz crystal ina vat Vibration of prongs of a n Oscillation of charge inh . epee ee 8}EQUATION OF SHM AND ITS SOLUTION f armonig maden ofa patie c# CHM ROMER rez A 0, See Fig 2. ol consider the simple with equilibrium point x atone fF aac eT Th A —_" B we ae FIG? 'SHM of a particle along AB ‘with equilibrium position 0 ‘the particle moves back and forth along AB about 0. Let OP = xbe the position of the particle at an instant eS ‘The instantaneous velocity is dx. at andacceleration ex at? This ts the differential formof diferent pr & Toprovethat a ; fi Solving this d is is functionoftime', forex9 tarot neato Solution of SHM. ‘The process of finding the function ‘x’ as displacement at a time's called solving the differential equation, The general solution of SHM Is givenby X= asin (ot +>) (3) This gives the displacement ‘x’ of the body at any instant ‘t’. The angular f «of SHMis contained in the differential equation. For any amplitude ‘a’ and initial phase ¢ the displacement is given by Eq. (3). Therefore, £q.(3) is called the general solution of SHM, The quantity (cot-¢) is called phase. The phase (cot + 6) re- fers to the state of the particle at an instant t. Different phases can be displayed on circle of reference. The equation for dis- placement is decided by initial phase. t= 0 FIG.3 Circle of reference. Initial phase and ‘ total phase (wt +) . If phase wt + $= 0, the particle cros: . when ot + >=1/ 2the particle is: . when at += the particle c : posite direction, Phase at t=0, Le., initial pl Characteristics of SHM Asimple harmonic motions a peri acceleration etc, vary peri V1 Displacement: ‘Any simple harmonic motion can be represented by its ; displacement x =asin (ot +) 2, Velocity : Instantaneous velocity is given by dx ve dt =acos(mt+)xo (cot +) =+/1-sin*(ot-+4) -m(* sfatext |e aa =4)1-% Ynin =9 (at the end) Vax = tao (at x=0) Velocity vector can have two directions at a point due to back and forth motion. This is implied by the negative sign. Velocity is leading ahead of displacement by 90° 3. Acceleration Acceleration, @x > = =-0’x dt? Acceleration (min) = 0 when x=0 and acc,,,= oa atx=a Acceleration vector is opposite to displacem 4. Force Force = mass x acceleration F=mx~o’x =-Cx where2A arrmontc Oreillations K,, =0 atx=a 1 1 Koen nota a eae : man aay a zon atx=0 6. Potential Energy : Work done against the restoring force appears as potential energy. Work done in displacing the particle through a distance dx is Fdx and work done against the restoring force is —Fdx = -(-Cx)dx = Cxdx Total work done in displacing the particle from x =0 tox U=fexdx=1ex? 2 Un =0 (at x=0) us 308 (at the extreme position) 7. Total energy E=K+U i ee =5C(2* -x')+30x = 50 =Kew Ua (5) Total energy of simple harmonic motion. is constant. 2 FGA Variation of kinetic (K), potential (U) and t ‘energy (E) against displacement x ime teeta pest yi boo baal ‘own restoring force ‘lone is called free oscillations. Free oscillations occur in atomic and molecular level. The frequency with which a i freely is called its natural frequency. Natural frequency is Re aetiner f, Ho. Many oscillations can be considered as free oscillations by en fthe body depends on the elast ing damping, The natural frequency of the body depends on the alia oft nal Nowadays software is used to find the natural frequencies ; . This determination isto ifthe body. For example, the body parts of a bus or a car, nat resonance with engine vibration and hence the damage of the parts and noise, DAMPED HARMONIC MOTION A simple harmonic motion under the action of a damping force is called damped harmonic motion. Most of the harmonic motions are opposed by forces like friction and resistance, Air opposes the motion of the pendulum bob, Hence the oscillations die away after some time, Oscillation of LC circuit is also damped due to electrical resistance. Weassume that the damping force is proportional to velocity. Differential Equation Consider a spring-block system with friction. Let m be the mass of the oscillator, Forces acting on the oscillator are the following. i Restoring force = Cx where Cis the force constant. ii. Damping force = oo itis assumed that damping force is proportional to locity. r resistance frictional force on the block is proportional to the s See ble . The - constant ‘b’ called the damping coefficient, It is the “un with 3 unit Nsm?,Hence the resultant force is ~ ok Fe-pS.. Cx Newton's second law: an Ct oe becomes @ Se 4% 0x = 0 © This is the differential equation of damped harmonic oscillator. Inthis equation 2 = 2k and 0? r= @, is the eer frequency or eae without damping and the constant kis called damping factor with unit s*. Unit of, is rad/s. We solve the above equation for displacement x intimet. 7 Solution We assume that the solr is of the form » xm Ast where A apd care URW hset 72 Act! (a! + 2ka +) =0 Pe Ac" cannot be zero for all time t, therefore a? 4 2ka +o, =0 This is a quadratic equation in a. It has two roots : ~2kt Yak 4g _ -2k t2YkE =H = cae Re ee 2 a=-k+ Vk? =o) a, =-k+ Jk? = 0} a, =-k-J oo There are three cases in which the displaced body comes to equilibrium slowly (over damped) or quickly (critically damped) or oscillating(damped oscillation). It depends on the following conditions. i ko! ii, k= @2and ii k< 0? Solutions are different in these three cases. case L. Over damped (k* > «,?) in this case, the damping is heavy. Since k > @, a and tinct numbers. The solution is Ya a es cl x=Ae"l! + Be k+ ka} | a A a} +Be where A and B are constants to be de system. We have to find A and B, then assume that the body starts from the maxi zero, The spring is stretched to maxim ie, t=Oatx=a and velocity =0 atPee Applying the first condition to Eq. (7) we get ; A+Bea (8) Differentiating Eq,(7) and applying the second condition we get (-k+ Ve =0F)A+ (-k- Ji =0,") <0 -k(A+B)+(Jk =o, )(A-B)=0 See _ Adding (8) and (9) we get A and substracting equations (8) and (9) we get B: a k a k A=5|1+——+—| and B=5|1-——=— Now the solution is —k+ i207? }t x()=4| es J *] os 2 k? — a," ment x(t) of the body at any time ‘t’after release. Due tothe presence of the factor e* the displacement decreases to zero without oscillation. Thus the motion is overdamped because of high damping. This gives the displace Displacement versus time for damped oscillator (a) Overdamped (b) Critically damped €aperiodic motion. Analysis of the solution shows that tl position very slowly. See Fig(6a)- Example: Motion of the door closer Pendulum ina viscous liquid Case Il. Critically damped (k’= @,") : Inthis case, the damping is of typical value such that k?= @,’. The soliti case is obtained by following the theory of differential equations : he displaced body comes to the eq x(t)=(A+Bt)e™ Applying the initial conditions as in the above case, we get A=a and B = ka, hence x(t)=(1+kt)ae™ (11) The function e* shows that the displaced body comes quickly to the equilibrium position. Since x(t) is always positive the body comes to equilibrium without oscillation. It is called critically damped motion. Condition for damped motion is b4m’o,”. Example:- Moving coil galvanometer : In amoving coil galvanometer, the damping is adjusted with a suitable resistance so that the deflected coil comes to zero quickly without oscillation. Pointers in the following are also have critically damped motion. y 2 Speedometer Multimeter Pressure gauge Case Ill Damped Oscillation (k? < @,?) The damping is small and hence the system imaginary because a ‘ 4 ‘ , % : whereSolution is given by ; x(t) =(Acos wt + Bain wt) or Applyii ae the initial condition: xa at t=0 Aza ode + =(-Aasin ot + Bercos ot) e™ +(Acosit + Bsin ot) e™ (-k) Applying dx/dt = 0 , above equation becomes 0=B+(A)(-k) woB-kATOB-ka of Bae o The solution is given by = ka 5 7 it x(t) =| acosat +—sin at Je Since o? +k =o 2 Puto=a,sind Se k= @,c0s8 aa (acosat + ksin ot) cl (c, sin 9 cos at + © cos sin ot) a) it = 800 eK sin(ot +8 te sin(ot +8) 2) =a,e™ sin(ot + 6) where a,= 20,/0. The periodic function sin(wt+0) shows that the system oscillates about the — equilibrium position. But the factor e# shows that the amplitude ae" decreases exponentially with time since the maximum and ‘ values of sin(wt+6) is +1 and -1, th displacement curve lies between @™ and -e™.4 eta motion of simple pendulum Spring-block system Excited tuning fork Plucked string of a guitar za D pasihile of oscillation decreases exponentially with time. ii, Frequency of oscillation is reduced from natural frequency ©, to ESA o= Jo, -k, Thus, with damping the frequency of oscillation is slightly reduced, The energy of the damped oscillator decreases exponentially with time, iii, Energy is in the form of kinetic and potential. A part of the stored energy is dissipated in every cycle. The average energy over a cycleis givenby E=E,e2 =E,e" where t= 1/2k = m/b is called relaxation time (1). This shows that the energy stored in the system decreases nentiall every cycle. In the above equation, is the init average energy ina cycle, When t = TE=E/ey natural logarithm (e ~ 2.72), Hence relaxat system may be defined as the time taken by average total energy to 1/e (37%) ofits i Q-FACTOR Quality factor of an oscillating g system is measure of | lack of damping of, a oscillator, A long time before comi: i different: durations, Quality factor is a measure48 Harmonic oscillations: Quality factor is defined as 2 ‘ Sab las HOV AAHOg as 27 times the ratio of the energy stored to the average Energy stored Energy loss per period The average total energy is given by BeBe" The average power dissipation P is given by the negative of the rate of change of energy. Using the above equation ort Q=2nx Pa-—s— dt ot Itis the energy dissipated in unit time. Hence energy loss fora period Tis nt om_ [Cc Ore aaa & where o,=2n/T,, isthe natural angular frequency (rad/s) and = isthe relaxation time. We have Q=0,t Dividing both sides by 2n: ber of oscillations during relaxation time, Hence the system can make Q/2r oscilla energy of the system reduces to 37% of th The Q-factor of violin string is 1000. When we bo\ (1000/2m) = 160 vibrations before its energy com damping is small, then the energy oss isal a long time, This is equivalent to say that | ‘ Q=a,L/R. the num! where frequency f, gives the number of oscillations inonesecond.—— red illator. ‘damping of an osc Itis a measure of | lack of na aight ie High Qmeans that the oscillat i ii, ifi, —‘ Thesystem Peer her the Q-factor, lal y a le during relaxation time. Q/2n oscillation during relaxation time, ger the number of oscillations the system can a ee m quality factor ois. Ss im wave coil in radio 90 Simple pendulum 400 Violin 1000 Tuning fork 10! Quartz 10° Laser (excited atom) 10” 10" Excited nucleus FORCED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE Simple harmonic motion executed by a body under the action of the applied periodic force is called forced oscillation. Suppose an excited tuning fork is placed ona table. The stem of the tuning fork vibrates up and down, Then the stem exerts a periodic force on the table. Now the table is forced to vibrate witha frequency same as that of the tuning fork. Nowthe table executes forced vibration, The frequency of forced vibration of the table is equal to the source frequency (tuning fork), a c re is the amplitude of the forced vibration? h equation for damped harmonic oscillator ves t amplitude and phase, Z a Differential Equation Let m be the mass of the body f=F. sin pt, Natural frequency of the body is y , Force vf Restoring force = Cx subjected toae ee eee dx, ii, Damping force = ~ bay Where bis called the coefficient of damping. Negati on : ae shows that the damping force is against the oscillation iti, Applied periodic force is given by f=F, sinpt where p is the angular frequency of the applied force, Resultant force: dx Fab oT Cx +k, sin pt Applying Newton's second law: dx F=m— dt? en cere e dt? dt er or or where x=", oa mm F./m =f, is the amplitude of the impressed differential equation of forced harmonic oscl We have to solve Eq.(13) to find the: sum of two solutions . One with RHS zero ¢ beginning the body oscillates with its 0 oscillation given by Eq.(12). It correspo! called the transient response, These is forced to oscillate with the frequency. RHS. This is called the steady state 5steady state solution. We assume that the body We shall find the it with a phase difference 9, frequency bu frequency equal to the source displacement of the body is given by x=Asin(pt-0) é In the above equation A is the amplitude of forced oscillation and 0 is the edifference between the applied force and [Link] two. 4 are unknown. To find out these, we substitute the solution into the differentia} equation. dx — = Apcos(pt —@) qe 7 APos(Pt—8) 2 ss =~Ap’ sin (pt -8) Substituting in the differential equation, we get ~Ap’ sin (pt — 0) + 2kAp cos(pt - ) + 3A sin (pt - 0) = f, sin pt Right hand side is written as f, sin(pt-0 +0). —Ap’ sin (pt— 8) + 2kAp cos (pt ~8)+@jAsin(pt-6) =f, sin(pt-0+0) =f, sin(pt—0)cos6 +f, cos(pt-6)sind Equating the coefficients of sin (pt — 6) and then’ get (0; -p*)A=f, cose 2kAp =f, sin ia Squaring and adding we get the amplitudFIG Angle © between driving force and displacement The displacement of forced harmonic oscillation is given by sin(pt -®) (8) This solution shows that the amplitude of forced vibration depends on the frequency p of the driving force. There is a phase difference @ between the displacement and the driving force. special cases (i) Low driving frequency : Suppose the frequency of the applied force is very small as compared to natural frequency (p<<@,). We neglect p* and 4k’p*in Eq.(14), then Se jf F, E, s = ia =constant Sema ‘Therefore the body oscillates with nearly constant amplituc frequency. Amplitude depends on force constant, (ii) High driving frequency : Suppose the frequency of large as compared to natural frequency (p>>@,). Wen then