Biology A detailed study of living things in the natural environment.
Cell The basic units of all living things.
Animal Cells Plant Cells
When the vacuole expands to the maximum size, contraction occurs and water is excreted from
Osmoregulation
time to time.
A group of cells that have the same structure and function and are arranged together to carry out a
specific function.
In Humans
1. Epithelial tissue In Plants
2. Muscle tissue 1. Meristem tissue
- Smooth muscle - Apical meristem tissue
- Skeletal muscle - Lateral meristem tissue
- Cardiac muscle 2. Permanent tissue
Tissues
3. Nerve tissue (made of neuron or nerve - Dermal tissue
cells) - Ground tissue
4. Connective tissue I. Parenchyma tissue
- Blood tissue II. Collenchyma tissue
- Bone III. Sclerenchyma tissue
- Loose connective tissue - Vascular tissue
- Fibrous connective tissue I. Xylem tissue
- Adipose tissue II. Phloem tissue
- Cartilage
Smooth muscle Non-striated muscles that can be found in intestinal walls and blood vessels.
Muscles that connect a bone to another bone. The movement of the skeleton relies on the
Skeletal muscle
contraction of skeletal muscles.
Combination of a group of different tissues
Organs
Cell → Tissue → Organ → System → Multicellular organism
Organism Living things that are capable of conducting living processes such as feeding, growing,
reproducing and breathing.
Plasma
membrance
Channel proteins The protein molecules with channels or canals
Carrier proteins The protein molecules that function as carriers
Glycoprotein A carbohydrate-attached protein - Act as receptors to hormones such as
insulin, stabilise the membrane by forming
hydrogen bonds with water and act as
Glycolipid A carbohydrate-attached lipid antigens for cell identification.
Selectively
A membrane that only allows free movement of certain molecules across it, and prevents or limits
permeable
the movement of other substances.
membrane
The movement of substances across the membrane of living cells, against the concentration
Active transport
gradient with the help of carrier proteins and energy from ATP(adenosine triphosphate).
The movement of molecules or ions from an area of high concentration to
Simple diffusion
an area of low concentration.
The diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher water potential
Osmosis towards a region of lower water potential, across a selectively permeable
Passive transport
membrane.
Lipid-insoluble molecules such as ions, large molecules such as amino
Facilitated diffusion acids and glucose that are unable to pass through the phospholipid bilayer
move across the membrane with the aid of transport proteins.
Isotonic solution Solution A and B have the same concentrations of solutions.
Hypotonic
Solution A has a low solutes concentration and high water potential.
solution
Hypertonic
Solution A has a high solutes concentration and low water potential.
solution
Haemolysis The burst of red blood cells
The shrunken state of animal cells when the surrounding solution is hypertonic towards the
Crenation
cytoplasm of the cells.
Plasmolysis The shrinking of cytoplasm from the plant cell wall as a result of water loss through osmosis.
Organic compounds consisting of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) in the
Carbohydrates
ratio [Link] and with the chemical formula (CH2O)n
Carbohydrate monomers, which are the simplest carbohydrate units.
- Glucose
Monosaccharides
- Fructose
- Galactose
Disaccharides Combination of two simple sugar molecules (monosaccharides) through condensation
Polysaccharides Sugar polymers consist of monosaccharide monomers.
Protein A complex compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen elements.
Polypeptide Polymer that is made up of monomers or small units known as amino acids.
Naturally occurring hydrophobic compounds found in plant and animal tissues.
Lipids
- fats, waxes, phospholipids and steroids
Triglycerides A type of ester formed from the condensation of one glycerol molecule with three molecules of
(Fats and oils) fatty acids.
Saturated fats Fatty acids only have single bonds between carbon.
Unsaturated fats Fatty acids have at least one double bond between carbon.
Glycerols A type of three carbon alcohol that contains three hydroxyl groups (–OH).
A major component of plasma membranes and are made up of one molecule of glycerol that
Phospholipid
combines with two molecules of fatty acid and one group of phosphate.
Steroids Lipids that do not contain fatty acids. (exp: cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen and progesterone.)
A complex organic compound in living cells that consists of nucleotide chains.
Nucleic acids
- DNA , RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Nucleic acid that carries the genetic codes of an organism and is the main component of
acid (DNA) chromosomes.
Ribonucleic acid A single polynucleotide chain which is shorter compared to DNA
(RNA) - messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
Genetic code Written as a series of three bases that determine the sequence of amino acids in proteins to be synthesised.
Histone Chromosomes are formed from DNA polynucleotide chains that are wound around a protein
All chemical reactions that occur in a living organism.
Catabolism Anabolism
Metabolism
The metabolic pathway that breaks down complex The metabolic process that synthesises
molecules into simpler molecules. The process complex molecules from simpler molecules.
releases energy. The process requires energy.
An organic catalyst that is mostly made up of proteins and is produced by living cell organisms.
Enzyme Intracellular enzymes : Enzymes that are synthesised in a cell for its own use
Extracellular enzymes : Enzymes that are secreted outside the cell
Immobilised Enzymes that combine with inert and insoluble substances to increase the resistance of enzymes
enzymes towards change in factors such as pH and temperature.
Karyokinesis Cell division that involves the division of the nucleus.
Cytokinesis Cell division that involves the division of the cytoplasm..
Body cells apart from gametes.
Cell Division Somatic cells
- It contains a diploid number of chromosomes
Reproductive cells.
Gametes
- It contains a haploid number of chromosomes
Describes two sets of chromosomes, one set from the male parent (paternal chromosomes) and
Diploid
another set from the female parent (maternal chromosomes).
Homologous
A pair of chromosomes originate from paternal chromosomes and maternal chromosomes
chromosomes
Chromatin A chromosome that looks like a long thread.
The cellular division that produces two daughter cells that contain a similar number and type of
Mitosis
chromosome as the parent cell.
Sister chromatids The chromosome is seen to be made up of two identical threads
The process of cell division that occurs in reproductive organs to produce gametes that contain
Meiosis
half the number of chromosomes (haploid) of the parent cells (diploid).
Gametogenesis The process of male and female gametes formation in the reproductive organ.
The oxidation process of organic molecules through several stages to release energy.
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Cellular
respiration The breakdown of glucose involving oxygen to The incomplete oxidation of glucose without
produce chemical energy the use of oxygen or in limited oxygen
Glycolysis → Oxidation of Pyruvate supply.
Glycolysis The breakdown of glucose by enzymes.
Fermentation The incomplete breakdown of glucose in conditions of limited oxygen or without oxygen
Alcohol The incomplete breakdown of glucose to ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy.
fermentation Glucose → Ethanol + carbon dioxide + energy (210 kJ)
Lactic acid The breakdown of glucose into lactic acid and energy.
fermentation Glucose → Lactic acid + energy
Respiratory The respiratory surface that enables gaseous exchange to occur between respiring organism cells
structure and their outer environment.
Breathing Repetitive inhalation and exhalation process
The process that breaks down large and complex pieces of food into smaller and simple pieces that
can be dissolved for easy absorption.
Digestion Physical digestion Chemical digestion
The mechanical breakdown of food to form small The decomposition process of complex
particles molecules into simple molecules
Peristalsis The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of muscles along the alimentary canal.
Deamination The removal of an amino group from an amino acid.
Faeces The remaining waste is a semisolid after the water is absorbed
Defaecation The process of rectum muscles contract to expel faeces from the anus.
A diet that consists of all seven food classes (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, mineral
A balanced diet salts, fibre and water) in the correct proportion and balanced quantity according to individual
needs so that optimal health can be maintained.
Balanced nutrition Food nutrition that contains all nutrients in the right amount to fulfil the requirements of the body.
Energy value The total amount of energy released when one gram of food is oxidised completely.
Open circulatory In an open circulatory system, haemolymph flows directly into the body cavity (haemocoel) and
system bathes the cells.
Haemolymph A blood-like nutritious liquid found in most invertebrates such as insects and molluscs.
Ostium When the heart relaxes, haemolymph flows back into the heart through tiny openings
Closed circulatory In a closed circulatory system, blood is always contained in a continuous closed blood vessel and
system is distributed to the whole body.
Single circulatory
The circulatory system which blood flows in one direction
system
Double circulatory The circulatory system which blood flows in two directions:
system - Pulmocutaneous circulation and Systemic circulation
Blood A type of connective tissue that is made up of blood plasma, blood cells and platelets. Blood acts as
a medium of transportation.
Blood cells - Red blood cells (erythrocytes), platelets and white blood cells (leucocytes)
Haemoglobin Protein in the red blood cell that functions to transport oxygen.
Oxyhaemoglobin A compound that is formed when oxygen combines with haemoglobin in erythrocytes.
Plasma The medium of transportation in the body.
- Water, plasma proteins solutes hormones and enzymes
Platelet Fragments of cell cytoplasm in the blood that contain no nucleus and are involved in blood clotting.
Heart Functions as a muscular pump that circulates blood to the whole body.
Septum A muscular wall that separate the left chamber and the right chamber
Pacemaker A group of specific heart muscle cells that initiates the rate of heart contraction and is located at the
right atrium wall
Sinoatrial node Main pacemaker that generates electrical impulses
Blood vessels Consist of arteries, capillaries and veins that are connected to the heart, and transport blood to all
the body tissues.
Arteries Blood vessels that transport blood out of the heart.
- Quickly transport blood at a high pressure to the tissues.
Aorta The main blood artery that transports oxygenated blood to the whole body
- Elastic to stop it from breaking due to the high-pressured blood that flows through it.
Arterioles The branches of an artery become small vessels when they reach the body tissues.
Capillaries Blood vessels with thin walls, as thick as one cell.
- Allow the exchange of gases to occur between blood and cells through diffusion.
- Nutrients, excretory substances and hormones diffuse through blood capillaries.
Capillary The group of capillaries
network
Venules Capillaries that rejoin to form larger blood vessels
Vena cava The main vein that transports deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
Blood clotting - Stop or minimise the loss of blood on the injured blood vessel.
- Prevents microorganisms such as bacteria from entering the bloodstream through the
damaged blood vessel.
- Maintain blood pressure
Prothrombin Inactive plasma protein
Thrombin Active plasma protein that acts as an enzyme
Fibrin A threadlike protein fibre that forms a network on the wound surface to trap erythrocytes and to
close the wound to prevent blood loss.
Haemophilia Blood disease that causes the patient’s blood clotting to be impaired due to the lack of clotting
factors
Embolus The blood clot that is transported by blood flow
Rhesus factor Another antigen found on the surface of the red blood cells
(Rh factor)
Rh-positive The red blood cells of an individual with the Rh factor or antigen D
Rh-negative The red blood cells of an individual who does not possess the Rh factor or antigen D
Cardiovascular Diseases related to the heart and the blood circulatory system
diseases - Atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, angina, hypertension, myocardial infarction (heart attack)
and stroke.
Atherosclerosis The formation and deposition of plaque on the artery walls.
Stroke Happened when hypertension causes fine arteries to break
Lymphatic system
Tissue fluid Blood plasma that occupies the intercellular space and constantly bathes cells
Lymphatic capillary Smallest vessel in the lymphatic system.
Lymph The lost fluid (pale yellow) is collected and returned to the blood through the lymphatic capillary
Oedema The condition in which tissue fluid that is not returned to the blood circulatory system will
accumulate in the intercellular space and result in swelling of body tissues.
Pathogen A microorganism that causes diseases.
- bacteria (singular: bacterium), viruses and parasites.
Antigens The body defence system recognises pathogens as foreign particles
Lysozyme An antimicrobial protein that can dissolve and destroy some types of
(Secretion of tears, nasal
mucus and saliva)
bacteria
Mucus contains lysozyme that destroys bacteria found in the air that
Mucous membrane
enters the respiratory system.
The first line of
Blood clotting
defence Prevents bacteria from entering through wounds.
mechanism
Hydrochloric acid
Destroys bacteria present in food and drinks.
(stomach)
Physical defence that prevents the entry of pathogens because it is tough
Skin
and is difficult for microorganisms to penetrate.
Mucus The mucous membrane that lines the respiratory tract secretes a sticky fluid
The second line Fever Fever increases phagocytic activity and fights against microorganisms
of defence that infect the body.
Phagocytosis The process by which microorganisms or other particles such as dead cells
are trapped and digested by phagocytes.
Inflammation The immediate response that destroys and neutralises harmful actions of
microorganisms and toxins at the early stages of infection.
Phagocyte A leucocyte that can carry out phagocytosis. (exp: Neutrophils and monocytes)
The third line of Immune response of T lymphocytes : Attacks cells infected by pathogens.
defence the lymphocytes
B lymphocytes : Stimulated by T lymphocytes to produce memory cells.
Memory cells The lymphocytes that stored memories of the pathogen
Agglutination Antibodies coagulate the pathogens and make them an easy target to be
trapped and destroyed by phagocytes.
Neutralisation Antibodies bind with toxins produced by bacteria and neutralise the toxin.
Precipitation Antibodies react with dissolved antigens to form an insoluble complex
(precipitate) that is easily destroyed by phagocytes.
Actions of
Antibodies
Opsonisation Antibodies combine with antigens and act as a marker for phagocytes to
recognise the antigens and destroy them.
Lysis Antibodies combine with antigens and cause bacteria to be broken down
and decomposed.
Antibodies Proteins found on the lymphocyte surface or proteins released by lymphocytes into the blood plasma.
Immunity The body’s ability to fight infectious diseases carried by pathogens.
Immune response The interaction between antibodies and antigens that cause antigens to be destroyed
Immunisation The process that stimulates immunity against a specific disease through vaccine injections.
Active immunity Lymphocytes produce their own antibodies as a response to stimulation by the antigens.
Natural active immunity Acquired after an individual recovers from an infection
Artificial active immunity Acquired when an individual is given a vaccine injection
Passive The body receives antibodies from an external source.
immunity
Natural passive immunity Acquired through breastfeeding and from the mother to the foetus
during pregnancy
Artificial passive immunity Acquired through an antiserum injection
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the human immune system.
Sensitivity The ability of an organism to detect changes in their environments.
Stimulus The ability of an organism to respond to the changes in their environments
External stimulus Internal stimulus
Light, sound, smell, taste, surrounding Blood osmotic pressure, changes in body temperature and
temperature, pressure and touch. changes in blood sugar level.
Receptors Specialised sensory cells that detect stimuli.
Response The way organisms react after detecting a stimulus.
Effector Parts of the body that receive instructions from the control centre and respond to the stimuli accordingly.
Coordination A stimuli detection process by receptors that ends in appropriate responses by effectors.
Nervous System Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
Brain and spinal cord. 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
The cranial nerves send nerve impulses from and to the brain. Spinal nerves send nerve impulses from and to the spinal cord.
Brain The coordination and control centre for humans.
Cerebrum - The largest and most complex structure present in the frontal part of the brain.
- Controls emotions, hearing, sight, personality and controlled actions.
- Receives information and stimulus from the receptor.
- Analys, integrate and correlate the information
Hypothalamus Control centre that regulates body temperature, water balance, blood pressure, and senses hunger,
thirst and fatigue.
Cerebellum Maintains body balance and coordination of muscle contraction for body movement.
Medulla Controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat, breathing, food digestion, vasoconstriction, blood
oblongata pressure, peristalsis, vomiting, coughing, sneezing and swallowing.
Pituitary gland - The main gland in the endocrine system.
- Secretes hormones that control the secretion of hormones by other endocrine glands.
Spinal cord
White matter Consists of axons covered in myelin sheath and extends up and down the
spinal cord.
Grey matter Consists mainly of cell bodies and is surrounded by white matter.
Spinal nerve Contains the sensory neurone and motor neurone.
Dorsal root Contains the axon of the sensory neurone that sends nerve impulses from the sensory receptor to
the spinal cord.
Dorsal root The sensory neurones’ cell bodies are clustered in the dorsal root ganglion
ganglion
Ventral root Contains the motor neurone that sends nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the effector.
Neuron Cells in the nervous system that consists of the axon, cell body and dendrites.
Cell body - Consists of a nucleus and many cytoplasmic projections (dendrites)
- Integrates signals and coordinates metabolic activities.
Dendrites - Short branches of the cell body.
- Receives nerve impulses from other neurones or the external environment and sends them to
the cell body.
Axon - An elongated branch of the body cell.
- Carries impulses out of the cell body to other neurones or effectors.
Myelin sheath - An insulating membrane that coats the axon.
- Protects neurones from injury
- Functions as an insulator for electrical impulses
- Provides nutrients to the axon
Node of Ranvier - Parts that are not insulated by the myelin sheath at regular gaps along the axon.
- Helps to accelerate the flow of nerve impulses by allowing the nerve impulses to jump from
one node to the following node.
Synaptic knob - A swelling at the end of the axon branch.
- Sends signals to muscle cells, gland cells or other neurone dendrites.
Synapse - A narrow gap that separates the synaptic knob from neurone dendrites that receive the impulses.
- Allow nerve impulses to travel in one direction.
Relay - Found in the central nervous system.
neurone - Cell body can be found in clusters in the grey matter of
the central nervous system.
- Connects the sensory neurone to the motor neurone.
- Sends nerve impulses from the sensory neurone to the
central nervous system and from the central nervous
system to the motor neurone.
Sensory neurone → Relay neurone → Central nervous system
Central nervous system → Relay neurone → Motor neurone
Motor - Can be found in the ventral root of the spinal nerve
neurone - Cell body is present in the grey matter if the spinal cord
- Receives nerve impulses from the relay neurone of the
central nervous system
- Sends nerve impulses to effectors such as muscles or
glands to produce the appropriate response.
Relay neurone → Motor neurone → Effectors
Sensory - Present in the dorsal root of the spinal nerve.
neurone - Cell body is found in the dorsal root ganglion.
- Receive nerve impulses from the sensory organ
receptors
- Send nerve impulses to the central nervous system
Receptors → Sensory neurone → Central nervous system
- Dendrites receive nerve impulses from receptors and
send them to the cell body.
Receptor Specialised sensory cells that detect stimuli.
Effector Parts of the body that receive instructions from the control centre and respond to the stimuli
accordingly.
Nerve impulse Information that is sent along the neurone through electrical signals
Neurotransmitters The chemical substances involved in transmission of impulse that are kept in synaptic vesicles that
are found at the end of the synaptic knob.
Voluntary action Actions that we are conscious of and done on our own will
Involuntary action Actions that occur automatically and occurs without us being conscious
Reflex action Immediate and spontaneous response
Reflex arc The stimulus pathway that triggers reflex responses. The pathway consists of receptors, control
centres and effectors.
Endocrine system Made up of glands that secrete chemical substances, that is hormones.
Hormone Chemical substances that regulate specific functions in the body.
Stimulating The hormone that regulates the secretion of other hormones
hormone
Pituitary gland - Main gland of the endocrine system
- Secretes hormones that control the secretion of other endocrine glands.
- Made up of two lobes, which are the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe.
Homeostasis The regulation of physical and chemical factors of the internal environment within normal ranges
for the cell to function in optimum conditions.
Urine system
Blood osmotic The concentration of dissolved materials and volume of blood and body fluids
pressure
Ultrafiltration The filtration process of blood plasma that contains dissolved nutrients, across the wall of blood
capillary.
Glomerular The fluid that enters Bowman’s capsule
filtrate
Secretion The process of secreting waste materials in the blood that were not filtered earlier into the renal
tubules.
Skeletal system
Exoskeleton Support and protect body organs and enable these animals to move.
Endoskeleton Maintain body shape, support soft body tissues and protect internal organs from injury.
Hydrostatic Maintain a rigid body shape.
skeleton
Human skeletal system
Axial skeleton The part of the skeleton that consists of the skull, vertebral column, sternum and rib cage. Forms
the main axis of the body.
Appendicular The part of the skeleton that consists of the pectoral and pelvic girdle, upper and lower limbs.
skeleton
Skeletal muscle Muscles that connect a bone to another bone. The movement of the skeleton relies on the
contraction of skeletal muscles.
Antagonistic The muscles work in pairs and act in opposite directions, that is if one muscle contracts, the other
muscles relaxes, and vice versa.
Tendon Flexible non-elastic tissue that joins the muscle to the bone.
Ligament Elastic tissues that connect bone to bone.
Gametogenesis The process of male and female gametes formation in the reproductive organ.
Spermatogenesis A process of sperm production that takes place in the seminiferous tubules.
Oogenesis The process of secondary oocyte or female gamete production.
Blastocyst The early developmental stage of mammalian embryo consists of a ball of cells with a hollowed
centre that is filled with fluid.
Morula A solid ball of cells during the development of embryo before the blastocyst stage.
Implantation The adhering of the embryo (at the blastocyst stage) to the wall of the uterus.
Embryo The early developmental stage of zygote in seeds (in plants), eggs (in animals), or uterus (in
humans and animals).
Umbilical cord A tube that contains the umbilical vein and umbilical arteries.
Placenta The organ that forms from the tissue of the foetus and the mother to allow for material exchanges
between the foetus and the mother.
Growth in An irreversible, permanent process that involves the increase in the number of cells, size, volume
organisms and weight of the organism’s body.
Dry weight The weight of an organism after all the fluid is removed from its body.
Ecdysis The moulting process of the exoskeleton that allows growth and development of insects