Module in Crop Prot.

105 - Beneficial Arthropods and Microorganisms

CONCEPT OF BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL OF AGRICULTURAL
PESTS
This module is for instructional purposes only. WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev.00 (09.15.20)

Specific Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you are expected to:

1. State the concepts of biological control.

2. Explain the unique characteristics of pests as it
affects biological control strategies.
3. Explain the importance of host plant resistance in
biological control.
4. Collect naturally occurring biological agents using
the of
one sampling techniques.
Module in Crop Prot. 105 - Beneficial Arthropods and Microorganisms

2.1. Definitions and Concepts of Biological Control

Definitions
The term “biological control” has been defined in many ways by various biologists. The
earliest definitions of biological control focused on the use of predators
and parasitoids (i.e., parasites of insects) to control another organism.
The “father” of modern biological control, Professor Harry Scott
Smith, defined it as the “use of natural enemies (whether introduced or
otherwise manipulated) to control insect pests”.

Dr. Paul DeBach refined Smith’s definition and stated that

biological control was "the action of parasites, predators, or pathogens Harry Scott Smith
in maintaining another organism's population density at a lower
average than would occur in their absence." DeBach distinguished
biological control from “natural control,” which he defined as "the
maintenance of a more or less fluctuating population density of an
organism within certain definable upper and lower limits over a period
of time by the actions of abiotic and/or biotic environmental factors.”

Later, Dr. Robert van den Bosch defined biological control as the Paul DeBach
"manipulation of natural enemies by man to control pests" and natural
control as "control that occurs without man's intervention."

Biological control can be used to regulate numerous types of

organisms including insects, mites, spiders, snails, weeds, trees, fungi,
algae and even animal by-products (i.e., cattle dung). Natural enemies
that control plants are actually highly specific plant feeders (i.e.,
herbivores). Even pathogens of organisms are used that cause fatal
diseases (e.g., milky spore disease of the Japanese beetle).
Robert van den Bosch
Biological control is often referred to as “biocontrol” and
among researchers in the field it is often shortened to “BC.” The major emphasis of W2185
scientists is the control of insect pests and weedy plants.
([Link]

Other definitions:
Biological control is defined as the reduction of pest populations by natural enemies
and typically involves an active human role
([Link]

Biological control is defined as the use of living organisms to suppress the population
density or impact of a specific pest organism, making it less abundant or less damaging
than it would otherwise be (Eilenberg et al.,2001).

Concepts
1. Biological control is the use of living natural enemies to control pests ([Link])
2. Biological control is an environmentally sound and effective means of reducing or
mitigating pests and pest effects through the use of natural enemies
([Link]/../what-is-the-concept-of -biological control)
3. The concept of biological control is that pests under natural or undisturbed conditions are
generally held in balance by other organisms. Agricultural practices frequently create
condition that upset this balance, enabling certain organisms to become pests. The
equilibrium between the pest and its natural enemies can be re-established through
manipulative techniques that promote the latter (plant path.
[Link]/specialties/biocontrols/bio.).
4. Biological control is one of several strategies used to control pests to avoid economic
damage on crop plants, in husbandry, or on recreation areas.
([Link]
gical_control)
5. Biological Control is “any activity of one species that reduces the adverse effect of another.”
In pest management, biological control usually refers to the action of parasites, predators
or pathogens on a pest population which reduces its numbers below a level causing
economic injury. Herbivorous insects and pathogens that attack pest weeds are also
considered biocontrol agents.
Biological control is a part of natural control and can apply to any type of organism,
pest or not, and regardless of whether the biocontrol agent occurs naturally, is introduced
by humans, or manipulated in any way.
Biological control differs from chemical, cultural, and mechanical controls in that it
requires maintenance of some level of food supply (e.g., pest) in order for the biocontrol
agent to survive and flourish. Therefore, biological control alone is not a means by which to
obtain pest eradication as illustrated in Figure 1 (Alston, 2011).

Figure 1. Representation of the cyclic relationship between a biocontrol agent and its host or
prey (pest)

Three Main Approaches to Biological Control

1. Classical biological control (importation) – the introduction of a natural enemy
of non-native origin to control a pest, usually also non-native, with the aim of
Module in Crop Prot. 105 - Beneficial Arthropods and Microorganisms

establishing a population of the natural enemy sufficient to achieve the sustainable

control of the target pest. E.g. introduction of insect parasitoids for control of exotic
mealybugs.

Parasitoid
Mealybugs

([Link])

2. Conservation biological control – the manipulation of habitat with the aim of

enhancing the reproduction, survival and efficacy of natural enemies already present
in an affected area or the actions taken to protect and maintain established
populations of natural enemies in a given area.

Examples are:
• Encouraging nectar sources for parasitoids to enhance their survival and
reproductive capacity;
•Providing habitats in which natural enemies can survive during unfavorable
conditions (e.g. after a crop has been harvested), such as by promoting the growth
of plant hosts that help maintain natural-enemy populations; and
• Reducing the effect that pesticides have on natural enemies, for example by
switching to biopesticides or reducing pesticide dosages to permit survival of lady
bugs.

Ladybug or Coccinellid beetle

Ladybug feeding on aphids

([Link])

3. Augmentation biological control – increasing the density of native or non-native

natural enemies with regular releases. Releases may be made in two ways:
a. Inoculative Release – multiple, smaller releases of a natural enemy over a period
of time; natural enemy is expected to colonize and spread in the area of release.
b. Inundative Release – a single release of large numbers of a natural enemy;
release can be in a small or large area; natural enemy does not become established
and reproduce; goal is a one-time reduction in pest numbers. E.g. mass releases of
Aphytis melinus for California red scale control.
 Aphytis melinus adult A. melinus feeding on California red scale
([Link]) ([Link])
This approach involves continually rearing, multiplying and releasing natural
enemies of a pest – generally in large numbers at the same location repeatedly.

Augmentation biological control is usually used when natural control systems

are ineffective and other methods (e.g. the use of chemicals) are undesirable. This
approach also includes the use of entomopathogens as biopesticides such as
Metarhizium anisopliae (fungus) and Thuricide or Dipel (Bacteria).

Characteristics of Biological Control Agents (BCA)

Introduced biocontrol agents are most effective when they exhibit the following
characteristics:

1. Narrow host range

2. Climatic adaptability.
3. Synchrony with host (prey) life cycle
4. High reproductive potential
5. Efficient search ability
6. Short handling time
7. Survival at low host (prey) density

Other Desirable Attributes

1. Easily manipulated in the laboratory

2. Can be mass produced
3. Provides control for extended period
4. Not harmful to the environment

Some Early Successes of Biological Control

1. The control of cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchase Maskell in 1890 in California by the
introduction of a small lady-bird beetle commonly known as Vedalia beetle, Rodolia
cardinalis (Mulsant) from Australia by Albert Koebele. In the following years the ladybird
beetle was released in Florida, Hawaii, New Zealand, South Africa, and other areas, with
similar results.
Module in Crop Prot. 105 - Beneficial Arthropods and Microorganisms

(Cottony cushion scale eaten by Vedalia beetles

([Link])

2. Complete control of the leafhopper, Perkinsiella saccharicida in Hawaii by an egg predator,

the mirid bug Cytorhinus mundulus from Queensland and Fiji in 1920 which was
introduced by Muir.

Leafhopper Mirid bug

(nanopdf) ([Link])
3. Control of the prickly pear in Australia from 1925 to 1935 by the caterpillars of South
American Moth, Cactoblastis cactorum which was introduced from the Argentine by Alan
Parkhurst Dodd.

Cactus moth larvae Cactus moth adult

([Link]) ([Link])

Advantages of Biological Control

1. Specific to pest.
2. Self-sustaining system.
3. Cheap after startup.
4. It works most of the time.

Disadvantages of Biological Control

1. Biological control can be fickle.
2. It's a slow process.
3. Expensive at startup.
4. Doesn't completely destroy a pest.
 2.2. Unique Characteristics of pests as it Affects Biological Control
.. Strategies

The following are some of the characteristics of pests that affect biological control
strategies:
1. Great reproductive potential.
- High fecundity - A typical female lays 100-500 eggs in her lifetime. The queen of an
African termite colony may be the mother of more than ten million workers during
her 20-25-year lifespan.
- High fertility
- Short life cycle
2. Great adaptability.
3. Greater generations.
4. More resistant to chemicals.
- over 500 insect species are resistant to pesticides, and many of these animals are
resistant to compounds from more than one chemical family. In New York, for
example, potato growers on Long Island must cope with a population of the
Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) that is resistant not only to
organophosphates, carbamates, and synthetic pyrethroids, but also to some of the
insect growth regulators and microbial insecticides.

2.3. The Host Plant and Important Component of Biological Control-

Types of Host Plant Resistance Affecting the Pests

Plants that are inherently less damaged or less infested by a pest than others under
comparable environments in the field are called resistant. The term “resistance” is used for
beginning studies in the field or in greenhouse when one does not know what components are
involved.

Types or Components or Mechanisms of Resistance

1. Non-preference or antixenosis – inability of plant to serve as host to an insect
herbivore. Plants that exhibit antixenosis resistance would be expected to have reduced
initial infestation and/or a higher emigration rate of the insect than susceptible plants. The
basis of this resistance mechanism can be morphological (e.g. leaf hairs, surface waxes,
tissue thickness) or chemical (e.g. repellents or antifeedant). Some examples of insect-
resistant crop plants imparting antixenosis are given in Table 1.

2. Antibiosis – is the mechanism that describes the negative effects of a resistant plant on
the biology of an insect which has colonized the plant (e.g. adverse effects on development,
reproduction and survival). Both chemical and morphological plant defenses can induce
antibiotic effects. The consequences of antibiotic resistance may vary from mild effects that
influence fecundity, development times and body size, through the acute direct toxic effects
resulting in death. Some examples of antibiosis are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Examples of insect-resistant crop plants and the resistance mechanism involved
(Thomas and Wage, 1996).
Crop Pest Resistance References
Mechanism
Module in Crop Prot. 105 - Beneficial Arthropods and Microorganisms

Antixenosis
Cotton Boll weevil Simple trichomes Wessling, 1958
Jassids Simple trichomes Reed, 1974

Sorghum Shoot fly Simple trichomes Maiti & Gibson, 1983

Potato Green peach aphid Glandular trichomes Lapointe & Tingey, 1986
Rice Stem borers Stem tissue thickness Patanakamjom & Pathak,
1967
Brown planthopper Repellent chemicals Khan & Saxena, 1985
Green leafhoppers Repellent chemicals Saxena & Okech, 1985
Maize European corn borers Antifeedant chemicals Robenson et al., 1982

Antibiosis
Sorghum Green bug Toxins Zuniga et al., 1985
Shoot fly Increased silica Blum, 1968
Rice Stem borers Increased silica Pathak et al., 1971
Brown planthopper Reduced nutrients Sogawa & Pathak, 1970
Cotton Tobacco budworm Growth inhibitors Lukefahr & Martin, 1966
Cotton leafworm Growth inhibitors Meisner et al., 1977

Abnormal effects when pests feed on resistant plant

 Death of first instar nymphs or larvae has often resulted, so that the differences
between resistant and susceptible plants may vary from zero infestation on resistant
plants to high infestation on susceptible plants
 A lowered reproduction by females reared or feeding on resistant plants
 Smaller size and lower weight often occur when the effect is not sufficient to result in
death of the pest
 Abnormal length of life frequency occurs either as longer nymphal or larval period, or
as shorter adult life compared with pests reared on susceptible hosts
 Smaller food reserves often are accumulated
 In a few cases, death has been observed just before the adult stage, thus reducing the
pest population
 Various behavioral and physiological abnormalities sometimes appear

Possible Physiological and Biochemical Bases of Antibiosis in Plants

 Presence of toxin in the resistant plant. Insecticides such as nicotine,
pyrethrum, and rotenone may be secured from plants such as tobacco,
chrysanthemum, and derris (tubli), respectively.
 Presence of growth or reproduction deterrent or both. For example,
gossypol in cotton retards the growth of the bollworm, Heliothis zea (Boddie).
 Absence of nutritional material such as vitamins, vitamin-like
substances, or essential amino acids. In the housefly, absence of certain
vitamins in synthetic foods result in death in the first instar, while absence of other
vitamins results in death at about the time of pupation
 Deficiency in certain nutritional materials, especially amino acids or
specific sterols. In pea aphid resistance peas, Pisum sativum Linnaeus, lower
concentrations of amino acids occur in resistant than in susceptible lines. The silks of
 certain corn lines resistant to the corn earworm also have lower concentrations of
amino acids than those of susceptible lines
 Imbalance in available nutrients, especially the sugar-protein or sugar fat
ratios. The effect on the larvae of Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella
(Olivier), resulting from different amylase content of corn grains, may belong to this
category, since both high and low amylose-bearing corn lies appear more favorable
than certain medium-high lines
 Proliferating tissue or increased secretions of resistant plants, such as that
causing the death of eggs or young larvae of boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis
Boheman, the melon leaf miner, Liriomyza pictyella (Thompson), pine resin midges,
Retinidiplosis spp., and possibly bark beetles, Dendroctonus spp.

3. Tolerance – is the degree to which a plant can support an insect population that under
similar conditions would severely damage a susceptible plant. That is, when two cultivars
are equally infested the less tolerant one has a smaller yield. Tolerance against a variety of
pest species has been identified in a wide range of crops including cassava, cotton, maize,
rice, sorghum and wheat (Smith, 1989).