Module-2 Chain Surveying
Introduction
Chain surveying or chaining is the branch of surveying in which linear measurements are done in
the field. This is suitable for the survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is
fairly flat. It derives its name from the fact that the principle equipment commonly used is the
chain. Chain surveying is not suitable for more undulated land, sloped land or crowded land. The
distance measured should be straight and horizontal.
Principle of chain surveying
The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area to be surveyed is
divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned. Length of only outer
sides are measured using chain and angles of the triangle also using clinometer and then length
of inner sides of triangle are measured using sine rule.
Figure 1 Triangulation
Survey Station- For fixing the boundaries of an area or locating some features in or around the
area to be surveyed, some points are selected at the boundaries or inside or outside the area to be
surveyed and then length between these two points are measured. Each such point is called
survey station.
Survey stations are of two kinds-
1. Main Stations
2. Subsidiary or tie station
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Main station
Main stations are the end of the lines which command the boundaries of the survey, and the lines
joining the main stations recalled the main survey line or the chain lines. Main stations are
represented by triangle.
Subsidiary or tie station
Subsidiary or the tie stations are the points selected inside or outside the survey area , where it is
necessary to locate the interior or exterior detail such as fences, hedges, building, etc. Subsidiary
stations are represented by circle.
Different types of line in chain surveying
Main survey Line
The line joining two consecutive main stations are called main survey line. Main survey lines lie
at the boundary of the survey area. It is also called chain line.
Base Line
It is the main and longest line, which passes approximately through the center of the field. All
the other measurements to show the details of the work are taken with respect to this line.
Tie or Subsidiary Line
Line joining some fixed points as a tie station on the main survey line and other points (another
tie station) on the base line is called tie line. It helps to locate the interior details. The position of
each tie line should be close to some features, such as paths, buildings, etc.
Check Line
A line drawn from main line generally perpendicular to base line to check the accuracy of the
work is called check line. The length of perpendicular line drawn is calculated by Pythagoras
theorem and this distance is also measured by chain and then both the values are compared and
hence accuracy of the work is known.
Figure 2 Different types of line in chain surveying
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Offsets
Offsets are the lateral measurements from the baseline to fix the positions of the different objects
of the work with respect to the baseline. These are generally set at right angle offsets. It can also
be drawn with the help of a tape. There are two kinds of offsets:
1. Perpendicular offsets
2. Oblique offsets.
The measurements are taken at a right angle to the survey line called perpendicular or right-
angled offsets. For setting perpendicular offsets any one of the following methods is used:
1. Using cross staffs
2. Using optical or prism square
Perpendicular Offsets Using Cross Staffs
Cross staffs are having two perpendicular lines of sights. The cross staffs are mounted on a stand.
The first line of sight is set along the chain line and without disturbing setting right angle line of
sight is checked to locate the object. With open cross-staff it is possible to set perpendicular only,
while with french cross-staff an even 45º angle can be set. Adjustable cross-staff can be used to
set any angle also since there are graduations and the upper drum can be rotated over a lower
drum.
Figure 3 Cross Staff
Optical Square and Prism Square
This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line. It is used where
greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using two mirrors and the
other a prism. Both are based on double reflection technique. The mirror method is constructed
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based on the fact that a ray of light is reflected from a mirror at the same angle as that at which it
strikes the mirror.
The prism square method is a simplified form of optical square consisting of a single prism. It is
used in the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate. This consists of two pairs
of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and narrow slit in each vane. The instrument
is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set up it is at normal eye level. It is also used for
setting out lines at right angle to the main chain line.
Figure 4 Optical Square
Figure 5 Prism Square
Some other instruments in chain surveying
Clinometer- This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle). They
are of several form, the common form is the watking’s clinometer, which consist of a small disc
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of about 60mm diameter. A weighted ring (Plumb bob) inside the disc can be made to hang free
and by sighting across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less accurate than
abney level.
Figure 6 Clinometer
This instrument is generally used to obtaine roughly the slope angle of the ground. It consists of
a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a graduated arc attached.
A small bubble is fixed to the vernier arm, once the image of the bubble is seen reflected in the
eyepiece the angle of the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the reading glass.
Arrow- Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and are used for marking
temporary stations when length of distance to be measured is greater than length of chain. The
point where length of chain ends, arrow is inserted in the ground so that next measurement is
done from that point.
Pegs- Pegs are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and length of about 150 mm long. It is used for
points which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of survey lines.
Pegs are driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops.
Ranging rod and offset rod- These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted
with characteristic red and white bands which are usually 0.5m long and tipped with a pointed
steel shoe to enable them to be driven into the ground. Ranging rod is used for marking the
position of stations and for sighting of those stations as well as for ranging straight lines.
Sometimes a flag is also mounted on the ranging rod to increase its visibility.
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Offset rod is also a type of ranging rod which is used for measuring small offsets from the survey
line. Due to small distance, no flag is used at the top of the offset rod.
Figure 7on right side Arrow on left side and Peg
Figure 8 Ranging rod on left side and Offset rod on right side
CHAINS
Chains are the measuring instrument used in surveying formed by generally 100 links made up
of galvanized mild steel wire.
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There are four types of chain-
Metric chain- It come in two variants- 20 meter chain with 100 links and 30 meter chain with
150 links. Hence length of each link in both the type is 20 cm.
Gunter’s Chain- The Gunter’s chain is 66 ft. Long and is divided into 100 links each 0.66 ft.
Long. It is very convenient for measuring distances in miles and furlongs and for measuring land
when the unit of area is an acre, on account of its simple relation to the mile and the acre.
Revenue Chain- The revenue chain is commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral survey.
It is 33 ft. Long divided into 16 links.
Engineers’ Chain- The engineers’ chain is 100 ft. Long and is divided into 100 links each one
foot in length.
Figure 9 Chain
Figure 10 Chain
Tapes
Tapes are also used like chain for measuring linear distances. They are 2m, 5m, 10m, 15m, 20m
or 30m long marked in metres, centimeter and millimeters. Tapes are classified into three types;
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Cloth or Linen tape
These tapes are liable to stretch in use and should be frequently tested for length. They should
never be used on work for which great accuracy is required. This is made up of linen. It come in
various lengths- 2m, 5m, 10m, 20m, 30m, 50m.
Figure 11Linen Tape
Metallic tape
These are much stronger than lines and will not stretch in use. These are made when cloth tape
is reinforced with brass wire to reduce the extension and contraction. It come in various lengths-
2m, 5m, 10m, 20m, 30m, 50m.
Steel tape
These are much more accurate, and are usually used for setting out buildings and structural steel
works. Steel tapes are available in various lengths up to 100m (20m and 30m being the most
common) encased in steel or plastic boxes with a recessed winding lever or mounted on open
frames with a folding winding lever.
Invar tape
Invar types are used mainly for linear measurements of a very high degree of precision such as
measurement of baseline. Invar is a 36% nickel & 64% steel alloy which has the lowest thermal
expansion among all metals and alloys in the range from room temperature up to approximately
230°C. It come in 30m, 50m, 100m.
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Figure 12 Steel Tape
Figure 13 Invar Tape
The chain/tape corrections used in surveying are as follows :
Correction for Standardization or incorrect length of chain.
Correction for Slope.
Correction of Pull.
Correction for Temperature.
Correction for Sag.
Correction for Misalignment.
Reduction of length to mean sea level.
Chain Correction for Standardization or Incorrect Length of Chain / tape (Cstd) :
Incorrect length of chain due to any reason whether not providing sufficient pull or temperature,
the measured length will also be wrong. Let L be true length of line, L’ be measured length of
line, l be designated or correct length of chain, l’ be incorrect length of chain, then
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𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 { } × 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛
Correction (Cstd) = True length – measured length = L’- L
If a chain is found to be too long, positive correction is applied and vice-versa. If the chain length
has increased, it means a longer distance will be measured shorter, hence to make it true a
positive correction will be applied and vice-versa. This correction may be positive or negative.
Correction for Slope (CsLOPE):
If there exists sloping ground, then the distance measured will be along slope which is inclined
but we need a horizontal and straight line distance. The true distance will be calculated from
measured value by the formula given below. Since, measured distance is inclined and hence has
more magnitude than the actual distance, therefore to make it equivalent to actual distance,
negative correction will be applied. This correction will always be negative.
Cslope = L – D = L –Lcos Ɵ = L (1 – cos Ɵ)
Figure 14 Correction due to slope
Where,
D = horizontal equivalent
L = slope distance
Θ = angle of slope
Alternatively,
Approximately,
Cs = h2/2L
where, h = elevation of the slope.
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Correction of Pull (Cpull):
If the pull applied at the end of the chain / tape during measurement in the field is
different from the standard tension at which the chain / tape was calibrated, the length of
chain / tape may increase or decrease than the designated value and hence measured
distance will be wrong and therefore a correction of pull is required. Since measured
length may increase or decrease than the true value, hence correction will be negative or
positive respectively.
The correction of pull (Cpull) is given by :
Cpull = (P – PO)L/AE
Where,
P = pull applied during measurement.
Po = Standard pull
L = Length of chain
A = Cross- sectional area of the tape
E = Young’s modulus of material of tape
Correction for Temperature (Ctemp):
If the temperature at the time of measurement in field is different from the standard
temperature at which the chain / tape was calibrated, the length of chain / tape may
increase or decrease than the designated value and hence measured distance will be
wrong and therefore a correction of temperature is required. Since measured length may
increase or decrease than the true value, hence correction will be negative or positive
respectively.
The correction of temperature (Ct) is given by :
Ctemp = α (Tm-To)L
where,
α = coefficient of linear expansion
Tm = Temperature at the time of measurement
To = Standard temperature
L = Length of chain
Correction for Sag (Csag):
A chain is supported at two ends, it takes the shape of a catenary due to its weight. The
correction for sag should be applied as the horizontal chord. Length is always shorter
than the curved length.
When the ends of the chain are at the same level, the sag correction is given by :
Csag = (w2l3)/24P2
Where,
W = Weight of chain per unit length.
P = applied pull.
l = length of the chain suspended between the supports.
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The above equation can also be written as :
Csag = (W2 l3)/24P2
where,
W = Total weight of tape between the supports.
If L is the total length of the chain which is suspended in ‘n’ bays of equal length ‘l1’
Csag = (w2L3)/(24P2n2)
Correction due to misalignment (Cmis): In case of any obstruction like a river, pond,
building, forest, the distance between two points can not be measured directly. Hence,
some other distances near to that line is measured along with slope of those lines with
respect to given line and with the help of geometry, the actual distance can be measured.
In below figure, the distance between points A and B can not be measured directly due to
obstruction. Hence, distance l1 and l2 are measured along with corresponding slope with
respect to given line. Hence, the distance l can be written as-
l = l1cosƟ1 + l2cos Ɵ2
Cmis = l1 + l2 – (l1cosƟ1 + l2cos Ɵ2)
Since, measured distance is greater than true distance, hence this correcftion is always
negative.
Figure 15 Correction due to misalignment
Reduction of Length to Mean Sea Level (CMSL):
All the distances are measured at horizontal, but if we need the distance between
corresponding two points at MSL, the correction will be given as-
The value of ‘R’ is approximately 6370 km. As ‘h’ is very small compared to ‘R’, it can
be neglected. Thus,
The correction is negative because measured distance above MSL will be more than the
distance at MSL .
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Figure 16 Correction due to reduction at MSL
Obstacles in chaining
There are three types of obstacles in chain surveying-
I. Chaining Free, Vision Obstructed
II. Chaining Obstructed, Vision Free
Chaining Free, Vision Obstructed
In this type of obstacles, the ends of the lines are not visible e.g. rising ground, hill or jungle
intervening. In this case, some intermediate point is chosen from which both points are visible
and the two distances are measured and summed up.
Chaining Obstructed, Vision Free
If any water body comes in between the survey line, then in spite of clear vision, the distance
between two points can not be measured directly. Hence distance between some other points are
measured and with the help of geometry, the given distance can be calculated. It is explained in
correction due to misalignment.
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