India : 200 BCE to 300 CE

UNIT 5 TRADE NETWORKS AND

URBANIZATION*

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sources
5.3 Political Background
5.4 Urbanization in 200 BCE-300 CE
5.5 Trade
5.6 Commercial Organization
5.7 Ports
5.8 The Articles of Import and Export
5.9 Coinage
5.10 Summary
5.11 Kew Words
5.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
5.12 Suggested Readings

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
the different dimensions of expansion of trade and urban centres in India
from 200 BCE to 300 CE;
trade and traders, trade routes, ports, transport and communication facilities,
and articles of export and import;
urbanization in this period and how it obtained a pan-Indian character;
the interest of political authorities in trade; and
the cities in various parts of the Indian subcontinent: Textual and
Archaeological profiles.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we shall largely focus on two important areas of economy, namely
trade and urbanization in the period under [Link] period appears to
have been that of interactions with different cultures including transcontinental
cultures in which the mercantile community played a major role.

In the earlier Unit, you read about agrarian settlements and agrarian society. In
this Unit, besides trade and urbanization we will also be looking at other associated
changes which were taking place in the region. For instance, the introduction of
iron technology during the Megalithic period along with irrigation led to

* Dr. Sayantani Pal, Associate Professor, Department of Ancient History, Culture and
76 Archaeology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
agricultural surplus in some areas. Secondly, with Mauryan expansion in Trade Networks and
Urbanization
peninsular India, greater contact with the north became possible. Traders,
merchants and others moved through different routes like the Dakshinapatha as
highlighted in the Arthashastra. The earlier system of exchange underwent a
profound change in India. Thirdly, the flourishing Indo-Roman trade further led
to expansion of trade and urban centres. Fourthly, the associated feature of craft
specialization which is indicated by the growth in crafts like pottery-making,
bead-making, glass-making, weaving of cloth became an important aspect in
local exchange or long-distance trade. One thing to remember is that all parts of
India were not uniformly affected by these changes. In some areas earlier forms
of culture persisted.

Let us look at the main features of trade and urbanization under different heads.

5.2 SOURCES
The number of inscriptions increased in this period. Majority of them are donative
records in which the donor has given details about his family identity, place of
origin and occupation. As such they prove to be an important source for this
period. The period also saw the increasing use of metal money. A large number
of coins have been recovered as hoards or in excavations which tell us about
trade and commerce in this period. The archaeological field explorations and
excavations have thrown light on the type of settlements and artefacts which
may indicate the kinds of town planning, articles of daily use like utensils as
well as luxury items like jewellery of precious and semi-precious stones that
were in use. The major two Dharmasastric texts, the Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya
Smriti, were compiled in their final form in this period. The Santiparvan and the
Anusasanaparvan of Mahabharata were also composed during this period and
they contain economic data like attitudes towards dana or the act of giving.
However, it should be remembered that these texts being normative in nature,
might not reflect the actual practices in the society. There are various references
in foreign accounts also which refer to India’s interaction with the outside world.
As for instance, we may refer to the Geographikon by Strabo, Bibliotheca
Historica of Diodorus, Naturalis Historia of Pliny, The Periplous Tes Erythrus
Thalasses (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) by an unknown author and the
Geographike Huphegesis of Ptolemy.

5.3 POLITICAL BACKGROUND

Politically the period saw the decline of the powerful rule of the Mauryas and
the end of state-controlled economy. In north, dynasties like the Sungas, Kanvas,
Chedis, Nagas assumed power. In Deccan the Satavahanas and Ikshvakus were
powerful. In the far south the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas became important.
Certain foreign elements such as Greeks, Sakas, Pahlavas and the Kushanas in
the north-west and the western and central parts of India participated in the
commercial ethos of this period.

5.4 URBANIZATION IN 200 BCE-300 CE

The agrarian expansion of the period under review led to the production of surplus
which enabled non-producers like craftsmen and traders to devote themselves to
trade and commerce. Cities were centres of trade and commerce, craft 77
India : 200 BCE to 300 CE specialization as well as centres of administration. In the north-west, Taxila was
a famous city. The remains of this city have been excavated from three mounds,
namely Bhir, Sirkap and Sirsukh. The mound of Sirkap has yielded artefacts
belonging to 200 BCE to 200 CE. The city began to show marks of urbanization
from the period of the Indo-Greeks but it was the Indo-Parthian rulers who fortified
the city with walls. Well-made roads and planned houses reflect Greek and
Hellenistic influences. At Ahichchhatra a new road was built by 200 BCE. At the
Lichchhavi kingdom of Vaishali in north-east Bihar the fortification wall was
rebuilt at least thrice between 200 BCE to 200 CE. At Sisupalgarh in Odisha
marks of urbanization are seen from 300 BCE. But it advanced rapidly from 200
BCE onwards. A huge wall was built sometimes between 200-100 BCE at first
with unbaked bricks and later with baked bricks. There was a remarkable large
and embellished gateway to the early historic city of Sisupalgarh.

Mathura emerged as the foremost city in north India during this period. The city
reached the highest stage of development during the Saka, Pahlava and Kushana
rule. Since these rulers had close connections with the north-west, Mathura
although being located in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, became closely associated
with historical developments in the north-west. The city-remains at Sonkh show
the highest marks of development during the Kushana period. The residential
buildings were built of both mud bricks and baked bricks. The walls of the city
were also renovated and broadened. In the Anguttara Nikaya (6th century BCE)
the description of Mathura is not a favourable one. It describes the dusty roads of
Mathura, poor transport and deplorable economic condition in which alms were
not easily obtained by bhiksus. This sorry picture of the city can be remarkably
contrasted with the description in the Buddhist text Lalitavistara in the 3rd century
CE. The city increased in size, was much more populated and alms were easily
available.
The most important city in the east was Chandraketugarh. Situated at a distance
of 23 miles north-east from Kolkata, the site is surrounded by a high mud-wall.
The extent of the site indicates that the city was large. At its earliest level Northern
Black Polished Ware (NBPW), a pottery of the urban phase, was found. The city,
however, reached its fullest dimension and urban character in the 1st century
only. Pottery, terracotta figurines, cast copper coins are found in this stage. The
wine glasses hint at the leisure time spent by city-dwellers. The terracotta images
are also sophisticated and give an idea of the taste of the urban elite classes.
From the site of Mangalkot in lower Bengal the strata dated to 1st-3rdcenturies of
the Common Era shows evidence of urbanization. Terracotta images, precious
stone neckpieces, drinking glasses, sprinklers of red ware with painted designs,
cast copper coins and seals undoubtedly bear testimony to the life of urban centre.
Houses were made of bricks and there were brick-wells adjacent to them.
Excavations at Nevasa, Ter and Satanikota in Deccan have given evidence of
urban phase. Satanikota was a Satavahana urban centre situated in Kurnool district.
This fortified city was situated on the right bank of the Tungabhadra. It flourished
during the period of 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE. Apart from the wall, the
city was surrounded by a ditch as well. The fortification wall was made of burnt
bricks with an elaborate gateway to the south. Manufacture of precious stone
beads was an important craft activity in the city.
The Saka and Satavahana inscriptions from Nasik refer to nagara, nigama.
78 Rudradaman, the Saka Mahakshatrapa claims to have protected the nagara,
nigamas from the wild beasts and thieves. During the reign of Gautamiputra Trade Networks and
Urbanization
Satakarni the process of urbanization spread to eastern Deccan with the expansion
of Satavahana power. Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Salihundam, Nagarjunikonda are
sites in the Krishna Delta which were decidedly urban in character. The accounts
of the Periplus, Ptolemy, the coins and inscriptions hint at the flourishing
agriculture and trade in this region. Dhanyakataka was a city located on a
navigable channel of the Krishna. The inscriptions found here also refer to traders
and their guilds. The city was protected on three sides by hills. Inside the city a
walled enclosure was perhaps the royal residence. Nagarjunikonda was the capital
of the Iksvaku dynasty (225-350 CE). Most of the residences were located in the
eastern part of city. The alignment of roads was remarkable. It was a centre of
Buddhist and Brahmanical religion as well. There was an open-air auditorium
accommodating at least one thousand spectators which reminds us of Roman
amphitheatres.

The process of urbanization also reached far south. Two great cities were Madura
and Kaveripattinam. The Tamil poem Maduraikanchi contains an elaborate
description of the city of Madura. Kaveripattinam was an ancient port city of the
Cholas, situated in northern Tamilnadu. Description of Kaveripattinam is found
in Padinapalai and the Tamil epic Silappadikaram which is a little later in date.
In this text, Kaveripattinam appears as a developed and an affluent city. This
indicates its gradual transformation into a great city. The Silappadikaram refers
to the settlements of traders, artisans and fishermen in different parts of the city
while one part was exclusively meant for the residence of Yavana traders. The
city was a port as well. It contained a light house indicating its importance in
maritime trade. Excavations have revealed a storehouse near the port. The epic
poem refers to a large number of public baths and water bodies. It tallies with
field data which revealed circular brick structures that may have contained water.
Water was supplied to it by a channel from river Kaveri. The arrangements made
for amenities suitable for a city indicates the importance of Kaveripattinam as an
urban centre.

5.5 TRADE
Different geographical regions had products which were specific to them. They
lacked in some others. Hence, exchange between regions existed from a very
early time in the historical period. For instance, the agricultural tracts produced
food-grains and sugarcane but had to depend on coastal areas for salt and fish.
The coastal areas produced considerable salt and fish but rice, the staple food,
had to be brought from areas of paddy cultivation. The hill ranges were rich in
timber, spices etc. but they had to depend on agricultural tracts and coastal areas
for food grains and salt. Thus, local and very often long-distance over land and
over seas trade networks developed.

Barter was the most common mode of transaction in the context of local trade.
Most of the items of barter were for immediate consumption. Salt, paddy, fish,
dairy products, roots, venison, honey and toddy were regular items of barter in
the far south. Very rarely, luxury items like pearls and elephant tusks also appeared
as items of barter. Exchange rate was not fixed. Petty bargaining was the only
method of fixing the price of articles. Paddy and salt were the only two items for
which a set exchange rate was known in barter system of the far south. The
exchange was not profit oriented.
79
India : 200 BCE to 300 CE Extensive network of over-land trade routes inside the subcontinent facilitated
the movement of merchants and traders. Four major routes and their ancillary
shorter routes throughout India were in existence. A route began from Pratisthana
or Paithan, the Satavahana capital, and it continued through Tagara, Nasik,
Setavya, Banasabhaya, Ujjayini and Sanchi to the mid-Ganga valley. It finally
reached Shravasti, the capital of Kosala in north. Another route ran from Champa,
the capital of Anga kingdom (Bhagalpur region) to west and north-west towards
Pushkalavati in the kingdom of Gandhara. This route finds mention in the context
of the forest exile of Rama in Ramayana. A third route began from Pataliputra in
east and it reached Patala in the Indus delta. The Periplus refers to a land route
connecting Bhrigukachha, the famous port of the west coast with Kabul. The
route ran from Kabul through Puskalavati, Taxila, Punjab and Gangetic valley,
crossing Malava till Bhrigukachha. The Buddhist sources refer to a route which
ran from the Ganga valley to Godavari valley. This was known as Dakshinapatha.
Kautilya, the author of Arthashastra mentions the articles which the southern
territories traded in, which included conch-shells, diamonds, pearls, precious
stones and gold. Good varieties of textiles also moved between north and south.
Northern Black Polished ware, a deluxe urban pottery also found its way to the
extreme south from north India. The remains of this pottery have been found
from the territory of Pandyas. Items like herbs and spices which included
spikenard and malabathrum (herb used in the preparation of ointment) were
shipped to the west. The large number of punch-marked coins that have been
recovered from different part of south India bear testimony to the brisk trade
between the north and south.

1. Bharukaccha (Bharuch)
2. Sopara (Supparaka)
3. Kalyan (Kalliena)
4. Nasik
5. Pratishtana (Parithan)
6. Tagara (Thair)
7. Tyadis (Kadalundi)
8. Muziris (Cranganore)
9. Madura
10. Podouke (Pondichery-Puducheri)
11. Alexandria

South India’s Trade with the West. Source: EHI-02, Block 7

80
The benefit of long-distance overland trade was mostly in luxury goods and was Trade Networks and
Urbanization
enjoyed by ruling elites. Regular trade links between Asia and Europe were
established in the 2nd century BCE. The major participants in this trade were the
Roman empire in West and the Han empire in China in East. The expansion of
the Roman Empire and the emergence of a powerful line of rulers led to the
growing demand for luxury items in the Roman empire as well as in the West
Asiatic countries. Silk was in high demand in West and it was produced only in
China. This silk reached West Asia through a long journey through the Central
Asian Taklamakan desert, the Pamir plateau and Iran. From there it reached the
hands of Roman elites. Although other items were also transported through this
road, silk being most precious and in demand, the road was known as the Silk
Road in history.

Indo-Roman Trade. Credit: USER: PHGCOM. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://

[Link]/wiki/File:Indo-Roman_trade.jpg)

Silk Road, however, was a lengthy route and traders had to pass through various
hazards. This naturally resulted in the high price of articles transported by traders
through this route. Here the rulers of Iran acted as mediators and levied heavy
tolls and custom duties on this trade. There was considerable animosity towards
them among the Romans as their intervention resulted in very high prices of silk
and other products. With the rise of Kushanas in the early centuries of the Common
Era, this role came to be assumed by them. The resultant trade and urbanization
proved very profitable for all players.

The direct trade between Roman world and peninsular India was carried through
the mediacy of Arabs. The Arabs had established commercial connections with
India, making the sea as a highway of trade before the beginning of the Common
Era. They enjoyed an enviable position in the East-West trade. They had some
knowledge of the wind systems in the Arabian sea and they kept it a trade secret.
81
India : 200 BCE to 300 CE With the ‘discovery’ of monsoon winds which is attributed to a navigator named
Hippalus, direct contact was established by the Romans with India. The Periplus
shows that this wind used to flow in the month of Epiphi (July) when traders
used to embark upon their journey in the Red Sea. From Eden at the confluence
of Red Sea and the Arabian Sea, the Indian coast could be reached in a faster and
easier way by following the direction of wind.

The Romans brought raw materials like copper, tin, lead, coral, topaz, flint, glass
(for making beads) and finished products like best quality of wine, clothes of
fine texture, fine ornaments, gold and silver coins and different kinds of excellent
pottery. They carried back with them spices and medicinal herbs like pepper,
spikenard, malabathrum, cinnabar; precious and semi-precious stones such as
beryl, agate, carnelian, jasper, onyx, as well as shells, pearls and tusks; timber
items like ebony, teak, sandalwood, bamboo; textiles items of coloured cloth
and muslin as well as dyes like indigo and lac. The Romans paid for Indian
articles in gold. South India had commercial connections with Sri Lanka and
Southeast Asia. Spices, camphor and sandalwood were the main items that were
traded.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Write a note on over-land trade routes in India in this period.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) Read the following statements and mark right ( ) or wrong (x).

a) The period between 200 BCE to 300 CE is notable for the ( )
decline of long-distance trade.
b) The name Silk Road was coined in the 19th century. ( )
c) Hippalus is the name of south-western monsoon wind. ( )
d) Muziris was a port in the Konkan coast. ( )
e) India bought pepper from Rome. ( )
f) The Arabs acted as mediators in the Indo-Roman trade. ( )
g) Barter was completely eliminated in the period between 200 ( )
BCE and 300 CE.

5.6 COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATION

In small scale local transactions, the producers were dealers too. The community
of Paratavas used to deal with fishing and salt making. They are mentioned in
the neital (coastal) region of ancient Tamilakam. The salt merchants were known
as Umanas. Big bags of salt were transported by carts drawn by bullocks or
asses. Besides salt merchants, dealers in corn (koolavanikan), cloth
(aruvaivanikan), gold (ponvanikan), sugar (panitavanikan) were also part of the
82
trade. They were quite affluent as they figure in some cave inscriptions of Trade Networks and
Urbanization
Tamilakam as donors of dwelling places to some ascetics. There is a reference to
the organization of Tiruvellarai; its members are referred to as nikamattor,
meaning the members of nigama, a guild. In Deccan we find, besides merchants,
wandering bards, dancers, messengers, mendicants too who moved from one
place to another and used trade routes. Most of the Buddhist cave sites were
located near these trade routes in Deccan and they were providing food and
shelter to travelling merchants and even provided loans. Not only the merchants
from Deccan but also traders from Tamilakam participated in sea borne trade.
The presence of some Indian traders in Egypt and Alexandria is attested by foreign
writings of this period. In south India, chieftains of Tamilakam encouraged sea-
borne trade. Light houses were erected on shores; there were wharves where the
Roman ships unloaded their merchandise to be stamped with the chieftains’
emblem. Storage facilities were provided, warehouses were given protection.
Sea-borne trade in the far south as well as in Deccan shows some features of
what is described as ‘administered trade’ by some modern scholars.

There are ample references to merchants in the donative records of this period.
They appear under various designations, the most common being vanik, sreshthin,
sarthavaha. The Jataka stories frequently refer to them. Among them, vanik was
probably a petty merchant while the sarthavaha was the chief of a sartha or
caravan. They used to travel with their merchandise to far off places in ox-driven
carts. The Jataka stories refer to a sarthavaha who embarked upon a journey
from pubbanta (eastern frontier) to aparanta (western frontier) with 500 or 1000
carts.

The setthi or sreshthin was the foremost among merchants. In Jataka stories
they appear as very wealthy. The Jataka stories refer to sreshthin as a private
entrepreneur who was very rich. But what is more significant is that he was also
the leader of merchants. Perhaps his wealth accorded him such a leading position
among the merchants. The Jataka stories indicate close association between kings
and sreshthin. Though he was a frequent visitor to the royal court, he was never
a rajabhogya (an employee of the king). This relationship between the king and
sreshthin was largely based on their shared economic interest. In the royal court
sreshthin used to represent the merchants. He used to keep the king informed
about the well-being of the merchants and their trading interests. The Avadana
literature shows that a sreshthin gave a huge amount of money as loan to the
king of Kosala in order to fight against Magadha. Thus, the king depended on
them for his financial requirements. This close relationship and understanding
between the merchants and the rulers is a special feature of this period. The
rajasreshthin used to carry on trade on behalf of the king. There was a
rajasreshthin called Habban of the Parthian ruler Gondophares (19-46 CE). In
the Syrian version of the life of St. Thomas (c. 3rd century) it has been told that
this Habban was appointed by Gondophares to procure an efficient architect to
build the royal palace. Habban thus brought St. Thomas as a slave from West
Asia to India. The historicity of this account may be questioned but it reflects the
king’s dependence on the rajasreshthin for his requirements.

5.7 PORTS
Ptolemy and Periplus both refer to the ports of the western and eastern sea-board
of India flourishing in the first two centuries of the Common Era. The most
83
India : 200 BCE to 300 CE famous was Barbaricum at the mouth of the Indus. It was located at the only
navigable middle channel of the Indus. It played an important role in the
Indo-Roman trade. On the basis of the Chinese text Hou Han Shu it is known
that the merchants earned a healthy profit from the maritime trade between Shentu
(Lower Indus) and Rome. This territory was under the control of Kushanas until
the mid-second century CE.

The next important port was Syrastrene (Surat of present day) on the Gujarat
coast. Among the ports of the west coast the most important was Barygaza. It
finds mention by both Ptolemy and the Periplus. In the Indian sources it is
mentioned as Bhrigukachha (Bharugachha in Prakrit). It was situated at the mouth
of Narmada. It was however difficult to navigate ships to this port due to shallow
waters. So Nambanus (Nahapana, the Saka Satrap) appointed oarsmen to help
the ships coming from other countries to reach the port. They used small boats
called trappga and Kottymba in order to guide foreign ships to enter the port or
to go out from it. Perhaps the Satavahana kings also followed the Sakas in this
matter. An inscription from Kanheri refers to sagarapalas who could have been
appointed in the same manner to pilot foreign ships to the port. Barygaza was
well connected with its hinterland. According to the Periplus it took 30 and 20
days respectively from Tagara and Pratishthana (in central Deccan) to Barygaza
by ox-driven carts. In the east Barygaza was connected to Ujjayini. The Periplus
further states that the articles of trade from China were transported from Bactria
to Kabul, Pushkalavati and lower Indus and reached Barygaza by land route.
Such an extensive hinterland was not associated with any other ports of India at
that period.

In the Konkan coast, the Periplus refers to three ports, Souppara (Sopara near
Mumbai), Kalliene (Kalyan) and Semylla (Chaul, 23 miles to the south of
Mumbai). All of them were under Satavahanas. The Periplus tells us that until
the reign of Elder Saraganus (Satakarni I) Kalliene was a busy port. But its
prosperity was much affected by the fight between Sandanes (Sundara Satakarni)
and Nahapana who laid a siege on the port. The Greek ships were prohibited
from entering the port. This indicates the interest of both the Sakas and
Satavahanas to control the Indo-Roman trade. The port of Kalyana probably lost
its importance due to this siege and it does not find mention in Ptolemy’s
Geography in 150 CE.

The ports of Mandagora (Bankot), Palaepatme (Davol), Melizigara (Jaygarh),

Byzantium (Vizadrog), Togurum (Deogarh), Turannaboas (Malvan) were situated
to the south of the Konkan coast. But none of them were as important as Kalyana.
In fact, the ports of northern Konkan were more important since northern Konkan
was agriculturally more prosperous, and their ports were well-connected with
their hinterlands. Both Pliny and Ptolemy refer to the activities of pirates in
southern Konkan.

In the Malabar coast the port of Muziris finds mention in the Periplus, Ptolemy
and Sangam literature. It was situated near Cranganore in Kerala. It corresponds
to Muchiripattanam of Sangam literature which states that Yavana ships came to
Muziris with gold coins and used to fill themselves with black pepper on their
return journey. In a third century Roman text a shrine in memory of the Roman
emperor Augustus has been mentioned. This indicates that Muziris housed Roman
sailors also. It was under the control of Chera kings. A mid-2nd century CE loan
84 contract document written on papyrus records how a ship anchored at Muziris
was loaded with Gangetic nard (a fragrant oil), excellent textiles, ivory products Trade Networks and
Urbanization
etc. From Muziris it was to sail for a port in the Red Sea where these goods
would be unloaded. Finally, it would reach the port of Alexandria in Egypt. Thus,
the far-flung commercial contact of Muziris with the Gangetic delta on one hand
and Alexandria on the other are illuminated by this fascinating document.

The ports of Coromandel coast were under the Pandyas and Cholas. They are
Camara, Poduke and Sopatma. Poduke corresponds to Arikamedu where
excavations have revealed a Roman trading post. Here amphorae, Arrentine ware,
Roman lamps, glass and stone beads have been found. Another famous port was
Kaveripattinam known from Sangam literature. Ptolemy mentioned it as
Khaberos. It is modern Puhar or Pumpuhar.

In the Andhra coast two important ports were Kontakossylla (Ghantasala) and
Allosygne in the Masulipattana area. From another port of this coast, ships used
to sail to Chryse Chora or Suvarnabhumi, well-known in early Indian literature.
It referred to the southern coast of Myanmar, Thailand and the islands of Southeast
Asia. The Iksvaku inscriptions of Nagarjunikonda refer to regular contacts
between the Krishna-Godavari delta with Srilanka and Vanga. Ceylonese monks
came to Buddhist sanghas of Krishna-Godavari region. This cultural contact
could have been based on trade linkages.

The Periplus refers to the port of Gange at the Gangetic delta. The country was
also known as Gange. The port is generally identified with the archaeological
site of Chandraketugarh. Its muslin was famous. It was exported to the port of
Bhrigukachha through the Gangetic valley or reached the Dravida country by
coast. From there it was exported to Roman markets. The port of Tamalites
mentioned by Ptolemy is probably the same as the port of Tamralipta in modern
Tamluk area of Medinipur.

Ptolemy used the designation Emporion (a trading outpost) in case of some

selective ports. B.N. Mukherjee thinks that if a port in the east had a Roman
settlement then it qualified for Ptolemy’s Emporion. The emporions were more
numerous in the Malabar and Coromandel coast than in Deccan. Significantly
Ptolemy did not use the term for the ports of Gange and Tamelitus. This indicates
that the ports of Bengal did not play as active role in the trade between India and
Roman Empire.

5.8 THE ARTICLES OF IMPORT AND EXPORT

Pliny, Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus give some hints regarding the articles
of import and export in the Indo-Roman trade. Among the agricultural products
rice and wheat were exported from the Konkan coast, Malabar coast and
Bhrigukachha to the coast of east Africa. Pepper was a much-valued item in the
Roman markets. Malabathrum was exported from the Malabar coast. Sandalwood
was another item of export. Among craft products, garments of cotton and muslin
were much valued. On the other hand, Chinese silk also reached the Roman
markets through Indian ports. Thus, India came to be involved in the international
silk trade. Apart from precious stones, the Romans were also interested in semi-
precious stones like agate, carnelian etc. Luxury items formed an important portion
among the articles of export, and they had a high price in the Roman markets.
Thus, traders involved in this trade used to earn a good amount of profit. The
85
India : 200 BCE to 300 CE enormous price the Malabar black pepper fetched, as Pliny mentions, justifies
its labelling as ‘black gold’ by Romila Thapar.
The articles of import from Rome and West Asia, were, however, not so varied.
Dates came from Persia to Barygaza. The Periplus refers to Italian and Arabian
wine. The Roman amphorae and the wine glasses found in excavation sites bear
testimony to the import of wine. Among the other items of import were the needle-
crafted garments from Babylon and Alexandria, glass vessels, copper, tin and
lead. The Roman gold coins were imported as bullion to the ports of west coast.
From the above list, it is clear that it was India which earned huge profits from
Indo-Roman trade. In 22 CE, Tiberius, the Roman Emperor complained that
Rome is being drained of its wealth to meet the heavy demands of luxury items.
Pliny further states that every year the Indian goods were being sold at a hundred
percent higher price in the Roman markets and thus the Roman Empire was
losing 550,000,000 sesterces money in each year.

5.9 COINAGE
Many different types of local coins were in use in south India. Ancient Tamil
literature speaks of them as Kasu, Kanam, Pon and Ven Pon. These coin types
have not been discovered. In Deccan inscriptions refer to Kahapanas which were
local silver coins and Suvarnas which were gold coins of Romans or Kushanas.
Besides these, coins of lead, potin, copper mixed with tin and other metals, copper,
silver and punch marked coins were prevalent.
Large number of Roman coin hoards have been found in many parts of peninsular
India. They can be dated between first century BCE and third century CE. These
coins were mostly in gold and silver. Copper coins were also in use, but they
were rare. Some scholars believe that Roman coins were used as bullion.
Imitations of Roman coins were also current in south India especially on the
Coromandal coast where there were some trading stations.
The large number and variety of coins issued in this period bears testimony to
the flourishing conditions of trade and affluence. The Kushanas were interested
in trade with the Roman empire. Their coins were fashioned after Roman gold
coins. One particular type of gold coin of Vima Kadphises was equal in weight
with the contemporary Roman gold coins.
In case of silver coins, those from the lower Indus were probably issued from the
royal mint but the silver coin called purana mentioned in the Mathura inscription
of Huvishka (106 CE) were probably issued by private moneyers. B.N. Mukherjee
suggests that the Kushanas took active interest in controlling the monetary system
of lower Indus since this region was commercially important for Indo-Roman
trade. On the other hand, copper coins were required for day-to-day transactions.
The Kushana copper coins followed the Drachm standard of the Greeks. The
Kushana coins are found not only in India but also outside, as for example, in
Ethiopia. This indicates the participation of Kushanas in international trade.
Thus, this period occupies a significant place in the history of Indian trade. For
the first time it gained an international character. The maritime trade in the Arabian
Sea and Bay of Bengal came to be interlinked with the trade in the Red Sea and
Mediterranean Sea.

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Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Trade Networks and
Urbanization
1) Describe the commercial organization of this period in 10 lines.
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2) What were the main items of export and import?
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3) Write in detail about any three ports of this period
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4) Read the following statements and mark right ( ) or wrong ( x ).
a) Sisupalgarh was an urban centre in Andhra. ( )
b) Cast copper coins are found in the urban centres of this period. ( )
c) Satanikota was a Kushana urban centre. ( )
d) In ancient south India, Roman gold coins were used exclusively
as ornaments. ( )
e) There were no local coins in use in this period. ( )
f) Punch marked coins have been found both in north and south. ( )
g) The relationship between monasteries and traders was not ( )
friendly.
h) The kings of this period harassed prominent traders and merchants
for money. ( )
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India : 200 BCE to 300 CE
5.10 SUMMARY
Trade and commerce expanded in the period between 200 BCE to 300 CE. The
trade was carried in different ways. Small level exchange was not altogether
done away with. The rulers participated actively in local, regional and international
trade. Facilities like transportation, storage and shipping existed to facilitate trade.
Different types of coins were in use. The Indo-Roman trade was so profitable for
India that large quantities of Roman gold coins flowed into India. A large number
of centers of trade, towns, ports and cities emerged and nearly all of them were
connected with overland routes and even by river routes. The vibrant trade activity
makes this period one of the most prosperous in Indian history.

5.11 KEY WORDS

Punch-marked coins: in manufacturing these coins, the metal was beaten into
flat sheets and then cut into strips. The blank sheets were cut into desired weights.
The blank pieces were square or rectangular in the first instance. For getting the
actual weight the edges were clipped. So, most of the coins are irregular in shape.
Symbols were stamped over them with punches; each punch having one distinct
symbol.
Administered trade: this refers to trade in which existed centers of trade offering
facilities like those of anchorage, storage, civil and legal protection, and agreement
on the mode of payment.
Nigama: a guild of traders or artisans.
Potin: an alloy of copper and tin.
Numismatics: Scholars who are experts in the study of coins.

5.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 5.5
2) a) × b) c) × d) × e) × f) g) ×
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Section 5.6
2) See Section 5.8
3) See section 5.7
4) a) × b) c) × d) × e) × f) g) × h) ×

5.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Begley, V. and R. D. De Puma (eds.) (1991). Rome and India: The Ancient Sea
Route. Madison.
Chakravati, R. (ed.) (2001). Trade in Early India. New Delhi.
Chandra, M. (1977). Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India. New Delhi.
88
Chattopadhyaya, B.D. (ed.) (1987). Essays in Ancient Indian Economic History. Trade Networks and
Urbanization
New Delhi.
Erdosy, G. (1988). Urbanization in Early Historic India. BAR International Series
430: Oxford.
Ghosh, A. (1973). The City in Early Historical India. Shimla.
Mukherjee, B.N. (2002). The Economic Factors in Kushana History (2nd edition).
Calcutta.
Romanis, F. De and Tchernia, A. (eds.) (1997). Crossings: Early Mediterranean
Contacts with India. New Delhi.
Thaplyal, K. (1996). Guilds in Ancient India. New Delhi.

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