THERMAL RADIATION

Radiation heat transfer is defined as the transfer of energy across a system boundary by means of an
electromagnetic mechanism which is caused solely by a temperature difference.

1.0 BASIC CONCEPTS

(1) Solid and liquid surfaces at all temperatures emit thermal radiation.

Stefan – Boltzmann Law:

Rate of emission per unit area is given by:
q
is proportional to T 4 , T being the absolute temperature.
A

Thermal radiation is emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Thermal radiation emitted by a surface encompasses a range of wavelengths. The magnitude of
the radiation varies with wavelength (spectral distribution).
Thermal radiation requires no matter for propagation.

Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.

Wavelength ( m )
 Wavelength ( m )

(2) In addition to emitting radiation, the surface of a body has the capacity for absorbing all or part
of the radiation emitted by surrounding surfaces and falling on it.
Let Ts  Tsur

(i) Solid body, s, emits radiation because it is at temperature Ts .

(ii) It intercepts and absorbs radiation emitted by the walls of the enclosure.

Quantity (i) > quantity (ii)

because Ts  Tsur .

Therefore the solid body will cool down.

(3) There is directional nature of thermal radiation. A surface emits radiation in all directions
encompassed by a hemisphere.

Emission characteristics of surfaces:

Black surface

An ideal surface which absorbs all radiation falling on it regardless of its wavelength or direction.

For a given temperature and wavelength, a black surface emits the maximum amount of energy.

Total emissive power (E )

Emissive power of a black body:

Eb = T 4 (Stefan – Boltzmann Law).

 = Stefan – Boltzmann constant = 5.67  10 −8 W / m 2 K 4 .

Is the radiation flux emitted from the surface of a body (units W/m2).
Monochromatic (spectral) emissive power ( ( E  )

Is the radiation flux emitted per unit wavelength (units - W / m 2 − m ).

The total emissive power is given by:


E =  E  d W / m 2 )
0

Emission from real surfaces – emissivity

The emissive power from a real surface is given by:

E = AT 4 (Watts)

Where  = emissivity of the material.

Emissivity,  : is the ratio of the emissive power of any body to the emissive power of a black body of
equal temperature.

E
= (at the same temperature).
Eb

1  1

Monochromatic emissivity (  )

E
 =
Eb
 (Eb )

E

AB
 =
AC
2.0 LAWS OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

Plank’s law

Gives us the monochromatic emissive power of a black surface:

2C1
(E  )b =
 C  
5 exp 2  − 1
  T  

Where:

C1 = 0.596  10 −16 W / m 2

C2 = 0.014387mK

(E  )b = monochromatic (single wavelength) emissive power of a black body.

 = wavelength and
T = absolute temperature

Above equation is of great importance as it provides quantitative results for the radiation from a black
body.

Plotting Plank’s Law, we get:

 (E  )b

( )

Comments from the graph:

(i) At a particular temperature, (E  )b increases with  , goes through a maximum and then
decreases asymptotically to zero.
(ii) At a particular value of  , (E  )b increases with temperature.
(iii) The maximum value of (E  )b occurs at a smaller wavelength as temperature increases.
To find  max ,
d (E )b
=0
d
Therefore:
maxT = 0.00290 mK
This is Wien’s displacement law,
i.e the maximum spectral emissive power is displaced to shorter wavelengths with
increasing temperature (see dotted line in above figure).

Stefan – Boltzmann Law

Is for emissive power of a black body.


Eb =  (E ) d
0 b

Where:
Eb = total emissive power
(E  )b = spectral emissive power
 Hence:
 1
Eb = 2C1  d
5  C2  
0
 exp  − 1
  T  

6T 4  4 
= 2C1  
C 24  90 

Hence:
Eb = T 4

 = 5.670  10 −8 W/m2.K4
 = Stefan – Boltzmann Constant.

Statement of Stefan Boltzmann law:

The total energy emitted per unit time by unit area of a black surface is proportional to the fourth power
of the absolute temperature T.
3.0 RADIATION INCIDENT ON A SURFACE

When radiation falls on a surface a part is absorbed, and the rest is reflected. If the body is
transparent, a part may also be transmitted:

Irradiation (G):
Is the radiant flux incident on a surface (W/m2).

Absorptivity (  ):
Is the fraction of the incident radiation absorbed by a surface.
Ga
=
G
Where Ga = absorbed flux .
For a black surface:  = 1.

Reflectivity (  )
Fraction of incident radiation reflected.
Gr
=
G
Transmittivity (  ):
Fraction of incident radiation transmitted:
Gt
=
G
4.0 INTENSITY OF RADIATION

Intensity of Radiation (I)

Radiation leaving a surface can propagate in all possible direction.

Intensity if radiation (I) is defined as the rate of energy leaving a surface in a given direction per unit
solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space (Units: W/[Link]).

Solid angle and spherical coordinate system

Due to its nature, mathematical treatment of radiation heat transfer involves the extensive use of
spherical coordinate system.

From Figure (1a) , we recall that the differential plane angle d is defined by a region between the rays
of a circle and is measured as the ratio of the arc length dl on the circle to the radius r of the circle.
 Figure 1

Similarly, from Figure (1b), the differential solid angle d is defined by a region between the rays of a
sphere and is measured as the ratio of the area dAn on the sphere to the sphere’s radius squared.
Accordingly,

dAn
d  ………………………………………... (1)
r2

Consider emission in a particular direction from an element of surface area dA1 , as shown in Figure (1c)

The direction may be specified in terms of the zenith and azimuthal angles,  and  , respectively, of a
spherical coordinate system (Figure (1d)
The area dAn , through which the radiation passes, subtends a differential solid angle d when viewed
from a point on dA1 . As shown in Figure (2), the area dAn is a rectangle of dimension r.d  r sin .d ;
thus, dAn = r 2 sin .d .d . Accordingly,

d = sin .d .d ………………………………………………………. (2)

Figure (2)

When viewed from a point on an opaque surface area element dA1 , radiation may be emitted into any
direction by a hypothetical hemisphere above the surface. The solid angle associated with the entire
hemisphere may be obtained by integrating Equation (2) over the limits
 = 0 to  = 2 and  =  2 . Hence,

2  2  2
 d =  
h 0 0
sin .d .d = 2 
0
sin .d = 2 sr ……………………………….………… (3)

Where the subscript h refers to integration over the hemisphere. Note that the unit of the solid angle is
the steradian (sr ) .
RELATION OF RADIATION INTENSITY TO EMISSIVE POWER

The spatial distribution of energy emission from an element can be represented in the following way.
•
• 
The total flow of energy d Q b from an element dA, given by  q b dA , can be imagined to flow through a
 
hemisphere of radius r , as in Figure (6a)

Figure 6

Consider the surface elements dA1 and dA2 on this hemisphere, dA1 lying on the normal to dA, and dA2
on a line making an angle  with the normal. The solid angle subtended by
dA1 at dA is dn = dA1 r 2 ,and by dA2 is d = dA2 r 2 . The solid angle subtended by the

whole hemisphere at dA is 2r 2 r 2 = 2 steradians.

• •
Let the rate of flow of energy through dA1 be d Q bn and through dA2 be d Q b . Then we shall write

•
d Q bn = in dn dA ……………………………………………………… (4)

•
d Q b = i d dA ……………………………………………………… (5)

Where in is the intensity of radiation in the normal direction and i is the intensity of radiation in the  -
direction. in and i are defined by equation (4) and (5) respectively. The spatial distribution of i is
expressed by Lambert’s cosine law

i = in cos …………………………………………………………………… (6)

Lambert’s law is illustrated graphically in polar coordinates in Figure (6b). It follows from equations (5)
and (6) that in general

•
d Q b = in cos d dA ……………………………………………. (7)

for any surface element that subtends an angle d at dA .

To find an expression for in in terms of the temperature of the emitting surface, consider a strip on the
hemisphere at an angle  to the normal, the strip subtending an angle d at dA (figure (7).

Figure 7

The solid angle subtended by this strip at dA is

2r sin  (rd )

d = = 2 sin  .d
r2

And thus the radiation passing through this strip is given by equation (7) as

•
d Q b = in 2 sin  cos .d .dA

The total radiation from dA passing through the hemisphere per unit time is

•  2  2 1
Q b = in 2dA sin  cos .d = in 2A sin 2 .d = in .dA
0 0 2
•
But Q b is also given by (23.3) as

•
Q b = T 4 dA

It therefore follows that

 T 4
in =
 …………………………………………. (8)

We can write

Eb
in =


Where Eb is the emissive power of a black body.

This equation, giving the intensity of normal black radiation, is a consequence of the Stefan-Boltzmann
law and Lambert’s law.
5.0 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW AND GREY BODY RADIATION

Kirchhoff’s law relates the absorptivity and emissivity of a body.

E
Monochromatic emissivity =
Eb

Monochromatic absorptivity is found to be a function of  ,  (angle of incidence), and temperature,

T.

( , ,T ) = f (, ,T )

Also monochromatic emissivity is a function of of  ,  , and T .

 ( , ,T ) = f (, , T )

A material whose monochromatic emissivity is not constant, but varies with wavelength, angle of
incidence, or surface temperature is called selective emitter.
Kirchhoff’s law states that the monochromatic emissivity of a surface 1 at T1 is equal to its
monochromatic absorptivity for radiation received from a surface 2 at the same temperature T2 = T1.

This may be expressed symbolically as

 (  , ) =   , T =T
1 2

Kirchhoff’s law is true for any wavelength  and angle  , and it is therefore also true for the average
values i.e total hemispherical values, of  and  .

Proof of Kirchhoff’s law for the average values:

Consider a convex black body of area A1 at temperature T1 in a black enclosure of the same uniform
temperature T1.

The energy emitted by this body is:

T14 A1

This must be equal to the energy radiated by the enclosure that impinges on the body A1, if the system is
to maintain thermal equilibrium.

Now suppose the black body is replaced by a non – body of emissivity  1 , but otherwise of exactly the
same shape and temperature as the body it replaces.

The radiation falling at A1 will still be equal to T14 A1 , some of which is absorbed while the remainder is
reflected into the black enclosure.

The radiation emitted by A1 is reduced to 1T14 A1 , and by definition of  , the energy absorbed is

1T14 A1 .

For the temperature of the body to remain the same, it must absorb as much radiation as it emits.

Thus the absorptivity 1 , of the non – black body A1 must be equal to its emissivity  1 , which proves
Kirchhoff’s law.

Kirchhoff’s law does not apply to selective emitters.

- For many purposes it is sufficiently accurate to assume that materials are non- selective
emitters.
- A body whose monochromatic emissivity does not depend on  ,  and T is called a grey
body.
- For such a body the symbols  and  can always be substituted for   , ,T and   , ,T , e.g the
E
emissivity at any wavelength is independent of  and therefore equals the average
Eb
E
emissivity
Eb
- A typical radiation distribution curve for a grey body is shown below:
For a grey body

 =

Q = T 4 W / m 2
6.0 RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN SURFACES

6.1 RADIATION EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO BLACK BODIES

Solid angle d1 subtended at dA1 by dA2

dA2 cos 2
d1 =
r2

Similarly

Solid angle d2 subtended by at dA2 by dA1

dA1 cos1
d 2 =
r2

The rate of radiant energy leaving dA1 and striking dA2 is given by:

dQ1−2 = I b1 dA1 cos1.d1

Where:

I b1 → Black body intensity

dA1 cos1 − Projection of dA1 on the line between centers

I b1 cos1 cos 2 dA1dA2

 dQ1−2 = …………………………………..(1)
r2
All this is absorbed by dA2 , because dA2 is a black surface. The quantity of energy radiated by dA2 and
absorbed by dA1 is given by:

I b2 cos 2 cos1dA2 dA1

dQ2−1 = ……………………………. (2)
r2

The net rate of transfer of energy between dA1 and dA2 is

dQ12 = dQ1−2 − dQ2−1

dA1dA2 cos1 cos 2

=
r2
I b1 − I b2 ( )
b1 b2
But I b1 = , I b2 = ……………………………………………. (3)
 

dA1dA2 cos1 cos 2

 dQ12 =
r 2
(
b1 − b2 ………………………………. (4) )
dA1dA2 cos1 cos 2 4
Or dQ12 =
r 2
(T1 − T24 ) ……………………………. (5)

The rate of total net heat transfer for the total area A1 and A2 is given by:

cos1 cos 2 dA1dA2

Q12 =  dQ12 =  T14 − T24 ( ) A1 A2 r 2
(6)

The rate of radiant energy emitted by A1 that falls on A2 from equation (1) is

cos1 cos 2 dA1dA2

Q1−2 = I b1  
A1 A2 r2

cos1 cos2 dA1dA2

Q1−2 = T14   ……………………………. (7)
A1 A2 r 2

The rate of total energy radiated by A1 is given by

Q1 = A1T14

Hence fraction of the rate of energy leaving A1 and impinging on A2 is given by:

Q1−2 1 cos1 cos 2 dA1dA2

=   ……………………………………. (8)
Q1 A1 1 2
A A r 2
 Q1−2
Or = F1−2
Q1

i.e Q1−2 = F1−2 A1T14 (from equation 7).

F1−2 is called the shape factor of A1 with respect to A2 . Also referred to as the view factor, angle factor
or configuration factor

Must be between 0 and 1

The view fact Fij is defined as the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i that is intercepted by surface
j.

Similarly: the rate of radiant energy emitted by A2 that falls on A1 (from equation 2) is:

cos1 cos 2 dA1dA2

Q2−1 = T24   …………………………………………(9)
A1 A2 r 2

The rate of total energy radiated by A2 is given by:

Q2 = A2T24

Hence the fraction of the rate of energy leaving area A2 and impinging on area A1 is given by:

Q2−1 1 cos1 cos 2

Q2
=
A2  A1 A2 r 2
dA1dA2 (10)

Q2−1
Or = F2−1
Q2

F2−1 is the shape factor / view factor of A2 with respect to A1

From equations (8) and (10)

A1F1−2 = A2 F2−1 (Reciprocal relation)

Therefore: net radiation heat exchange between surface A1 and A2 : (from equation 6)

(
Q12 = A1F1−2 T14 − T24 )
( )
= A2 F2−1 T14 − T24 (Applicable to black surfaces only)
Remarks on view factor

(i) A1F1−2 = A2 F2−1 (Reciprocal relation).

(ii) If n surfaces make up an enclosure, then;
F1−1 + F1−2 + F1−3 + − − − − − + F1−n = 1
F2−1 + F2−2 + F2−3 + − − − − − + F2−n = 1
Fn−1 + Fn−2 + Fn−3 + − − − − − + Fn−n = 1

( Conservation principle i.e all radiation leaving surface i must be intercepted by the enclosure
surfaces).

(iii) Concave surface

F1−1  0 i.e. surface sees itself. A surface has a shape factor with respect to itself if it is
concave.

Plane surface

For plane surface: F1−1 = 0

 Convex surface

For convex surface: F1−1 = 0

**********************

When is the view factor F1−2 or F2−1 = 1?

1 is spherical, completely enclosed by 2. Surface 1 completely sees surface 2, hence:

 F1−2 = 1

A1F1−2 = A2 F2−1

A1
 F2−1 =
A2
Consider following case:

F1−2  1
Values of shape factors are available for many configurations:

Shape factor for aligned parallel rectangles

 Shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common angle

Shape factor for parallel coaxial disks

(iv) If two surfaces A1 and A2 are parallel and large radiation occurs across the gap between
them so that A1 = A2 and all radiation emitted by one falls on the other i.e.

F1−2 = F2−1 = 1

(v) The shape factor is purely a function of geometric factors only.

 (vi) Radiating surface sub-divided

A1 = A3 + A4
A1F1−2 = A3 F3−2 + A4 F4−2
Hence: F1−2  F3−2 + F4−2

 if the radiating surface is sub-divided the shape factor for that surface with respect to the receiving
surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.

(vii) Receiving surface factor divided

Receiving surface A2 = A3 + A4
A1F1−2 = A1F1−3 + A1F1−4
i.e. F1−2 = F1−3 + F1−4

 The shape factor from a radiating surface to a sub-divided receiving surface is simply the sum of
individual shape factors.
7.0 ELECTRICAL NETWORK ANALOGY FOR THERMAL RADIATION SYSTEMS

Can be used to analyze radiation exchange between gray or black bodies.

Radiosity (J ) ; Rate at which radiation leaves a surface due to emission and reflection in all directions
per unit area of the surface (W/m2)

i.e radiosity accounts for all the radiant energy leaving a surface, including reflected portion of the
irradiation, as well as the direct emission.

J =  + G

Or J =  b + G

Where b = Emissive power of a black body at same temperature.

Also

 +  + = 1

Or  +  = 1 (  = 0 for opaque surface)

  = 1−

 J = b + (1 −  )G

But  =  ( by Kirchhoff’s law)

 J = b + (1 −  )G
 J −  b
I.e. G=
1− 

The net energy leaving a surface is the difference between its radiosity and irradiation i.e.

Qnet
= J −G
A

Qnet J −  b
Or =J−
A 1− 

J (1 −  ) − ( J −  b )
=
1− 

J − J − J +  b
=
1− 

 ( b − J )
=
1− 

A ( b − J )
i.e. Qnet =
(1 −  )

=
(b − J )
(1−  ) / A

The quantity
(1 −  ) is known as surface resistance because it is related to surface properties of the
A
radiating body.

Electrical analogy:

Consider radiation exchange between two non black surfaces : 1 and 2;

Of the total radiation which leaves surface 1, the amount that reaches surface 2 is J1 A1F1−2

Similarly, the heat radiated by surface 2 and received by surface 1 is J 2 A2 F2−1

The net interchange of heat between the surfaces (Q12 ) is given by:

Q12 = J1 A1F1−2 − J 2 A2 F2−1

But A1F1−2 = A2 F2−1 (Reciprocal theorem)

 Q12 = A1F1−2 (J1 − J 2 )

J1 − J 2
i.e. Q12 =
(1 / A1F1−2 )
The quantity 1 A1F1−2 in above equation is called space resistance because it is due to the distance and
geometry of radiating bodies.

Electrical network analogy

Considering the surface resistances of the two bodies and space resistance between them, then the net
heat flow can be represented by an electric circuit as follows:
The net heat exchange between the two gray surfaces is given by.

b1 − b2
(Q12 )net = 1 −  1 1− 2
1
+ +
A1 1 A1 F1− 2 A2 2

=
(
A1 T14 − T24 ) (multiplying both numerator and denominator by A1)
1 − 1 1 1 −  2 A1
+ + .
1 F1− 2  2 A2

Or (Q12 )net = (Fg )1−2 A1 (T14 − T24 )

Where

1
( Fg )1− 2 =
1 − 1 1 1 −  2 A1
+ + .
1 F1− 2  2 A2

(Fg )1−2 is known as grey body factor.

Consider the following cases

1. For radiation exchange between two black surfaces;

 1 =  2 = 1  (Fg )1− 2 = F1− 2

Hence Qnet = F1−2 A T14 − T24 ( )

2. When radiating bodies are infinite parallel planes:

Here A1 = A2 and F1−2 = 1

hence
 1
( Fg )1− 2 =
1 − 1 1− 2
+1+
1 2
1
( Fg )1− 2 =
1 1
+ −1
1 2

3. When the radiating bodies are concentric cylinders or sphere.

Here F1−2 = 1

1
( Fg )1− 2 =
1 − 1 1 −  2 A1
+1+ .
1  2 A2

1
( Fg )1− 2 =
1 A1  1 
+  − 1
 1 A2   2 
 For concentric cylinder:

A1 2r1 L
=
A2 2r2 L

A1 r1
=
A2 r2
For concentric spheres,

A1 4r12 r12
= =
A2 4r22 r22

4. When a small body lies inside a large enclosure

A1
Here F1−2 = 1, A1  A2  →0
A2

Therefore
1
( Fg )1− 2 =
1 − 1
+1
1

Example: Pipe carrying steam in a large room.

8.0 RADIATION SHIELD

A radiation shield can be used to reduce the overall heat transfer between two radiating surfaces.
Consider two large parallel plates, 1 and 2 each of area A( A1 = A2 = A) at temperatures T1 and T2
respectively with a radiation shield placed between them:

With no radiation shield, the net heat exchange between the parallel plates is given by:

(Q12 )net =
(
A T14 − T24 )
1 1
+ −1
1 2

The heat exchange between surface 1,3 and 3, 2 is given by

(Q13 )net =
(
A T14 − T34 )
1 1
+ −1
1 3

(Q32 )net =
(
A T34 − T24 )
1 1
+ −1
3 2

Since the radiation shield does not deliver or remove heat from the system: therefore;

(Q13 )net = (Q32 )net

 (
A T14 − T34
=
)
A T34 − T24 ( )
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1 3 3 2

Hence we can determine the temperature (T3 ) and the % reduction in heat exchange between the
plates after introduction of the radiation shield.

EXAMPLE

Calculate the net radiation heat exchange per m2 area for two large parallel plates at temperatures of
427oC and 27oC respectively.

 (hot plate) = 0.9

 (cold plate) = 0.6

If a polished aluminum shield is placed between them find the percentage reduction in the heat
transfer.

 (shield) = 0.4

SOLUTION

Net radiant heat exchange per m2

In the absence of radiation shield the heat flow between plates 1 and 2 is given by:

  700  4  300  4 
  −  
(Q12 )net =
(
 T14 − T24 )
= 5.67   100   100  
1 1  1 1 
+ −1  + −1 
1  2  0.9 0.6 
 13154.4
= = 7402.6W / m 2
1.777

Percentage reduction in the heat transfer rate:

When a shield is placed between the plates 1 and 2, then

(Q13 )net = (Q32 )net

(
A T14 − T34
=
)
A T34 − T24 ( )
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1 3 3 2
4 4 4 4
 700   T3   T3   300 
  −    − 
i.e.  100   100  =  100   100 
1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
0.9 0.4 0.4 0.6

2401− x 4 x 4 − 81  T 
i.e. =  where x = 3 
1.11 + 25 − 1 25 + 1.67 − 1  100 

i.e 2401− x 4 =
25.11 4
25.67
x − 81 ( )
solving

x 4 = 1254.8

= (1253.8)
T3
x =
1/ 4

100

Or T3 = 595K

 700  4  595  4 
5.67  −  
 (Q13 )net =
(
 T14 − T34
=
)  100   100  

1 1 1 1
+ −1 + −1
1  3 0 . 9 0. 4
 6507.2
= = 259.1W
25.11

 Reduction in heat flow due to shield

= (Q12 )net − (Q13 )net

= 7402.6 − 259.1 = 7143.5w

7143.5
Or percentage reduction =  100 = 96.5%
7402.6