Earth

The earth is one of the planets of the Solar System. Its shape approximates to that of a sphere but
could best be described as an oblate spheroid, i.e. bulged at the equator and compressed at the
poles. Its equatorial radius is 6378.16 km and the polar radius is 6356.77 km. This difference in
diameter is called the earth’s compression. For most practical purposes, we consider the earth to
be a true sphere. Navigation is all about knowing where you are on the earth.

Great Circle

A great Circle is a Circle on the surface of a sphere whose plane passes through the
center of the sphere.

A great Circle divides the sphere into two identical parts, each called as Hemisphere.

The radius of the Great Circle is equal to that of the Sphere.

Any number of Great Circle can pass through a given point on the surface of the
sphere. However, all these G.C would also pass through a point diametrically opposite
to the given point.

Only one G.C can pass through two given points on the surface of a sphere. However,
if the two points are diametrically opposite to each other, any number of great circle
can pass through the two points.
 Small Circle
A small circle is a circle on a surface of a sphere, whose plane doesn’t pass through
the center of the sphere.

Spherical Triangle
A spherical triangle is a figure formed on the sphere ( earth ) by three great circle arcs,
all less than 180 degree. The sum of the angle is not fixed but always greater than 180
degree,
If any side of the spherical triangle is 90 degree it is termed as Quadrantal.

Earth’s Axis

The earth rotates in its own axis and at the same time revolves around the sun in
elliptical orbit.

The axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of the orbit and it is inclined by
an angle of 23.5 degree to the vertical.
 The earth’s axis maintains its orientation in space i.e. it keeps pointing towards the
same direction with respect to space

The fixed orientation and tilt of axis cause different seasons a earth orbit around the
sun.

Poles

North Pole

The North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean, and is known as the
geographic north pole or terrestrial north pole. It is the point on the Northern
Hemisphere where the earth’s axis of rotation meets the surface of earth.

South Pole

It is the opposite. The south pole is also known as the terrestrial or true south pole. It
is one of the point where the earth’s axis of rotation meets the surface of the earth.

Equator

An imaginary circumferential line on the Earth’s surface equidistant from the true
north and true south poles, dividing the earth into the northern and southern
hemispheres.

It is about 40,075 km long and passes through 13 countries.

78.7 % of the line lies across the waters and 21.3% across land.
The plane of the equator passes through the center of the earth.

It is also a reference of measuring latitudes

It is the largest Great Circle.

Meridians
Meridians is the half of a great circle drawn on the surface of the earth from the north
pole to south pole. A meridian is also called a line of longitude and is half of a great
circle. The meridians converge at the poles.

Latitudes

Latitude is one of the two co-ordinate used to indicate the position of a person, or
ship. It is measured from 0 to 90 degrees from equator to poles named North and
South. Hence 0 degree latitudes indicates all the places along the equator.
90N indicates North Pole and 90S indicates South pole.

Prime Meridian
The other coordinate used for indicating position on Earth is Longitude.

In case of longitude, the reference line taken is Prime Meridian

The Prime Meridian and its Anti Prime Meridian together forms Great Circle.

This G.C divides the earth into two parts namely Eastern and Western Hemisphere.
Longitude

It is one of the two coordinates of a place.

It can be defined as measure of the arc of the equator contained between the prime
meridian and the meridian passing through that place.

It is named East or West.

A value of longitude cannot be more that 180 degree.

Geographical Mile

It is the linear unit of length spanned by 1 minute of arc along the earth’s Equator.

In SI unit it is 1855.3 meters.

1 geographic mile = 1855 km

Statute Mile

The unit of distance measured on land equal to 1760 yards.

1 statute mile = 1609 km

Nautical Mile

Or Sea Mile is a unit of distance set by International agreement as being exactly 1852
km.
It was defined as the distance spanned by one minute of arc along a meridian of the
earth.

1 nm = 1852 km

Difference of Latitude

It is the number of degrees by which two parallels of latitude are separated from each
other.

The D’Lat can have a name of N and S.

Difference of Longitude

It is the number of degrees by which two meridians are separated from each other.

The D’Long can have a name of E and W.

Knot
It is a unit of speed used by navigatotd of onne nautical mile per hour

The standard symvbol is kn.

Cable
It is a nautical unit of length equal to one length of a nautical mile or 185.2 m or also
termed as 100 fathoms.
Earth
The earth is one of the planets of the Solar System. Its shape approximates to that of a sphere but could
best be described as an oblate spheroid, i.e. bulged at the equator and compressed at the poles. Its
equatorial radius is 6378.16 km and the polar radius is 6356.77 km. This difference in diameter is called
the earth’s compression. For most practical purposes, we consider the earth to be a true sphere.
Navigation is all about knowing where you are on the earth.

Axis
The axis of the earth is the diameter about which it rotates.
Poles
The geographic poles of the earth are the two points where the axis meets the surface of the earth.
The earth rotates about its axis once each day. This rotation carries each point on the earth’s surface
towards East. West is the direction 180° from East, North is the direction 90° to the left of East, and
South is the direction 90° to the right of East. The two poles of the earth are designated as North Pole
and South Pole, accordingly.

Great Circle
A Great Circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes through the centre of
the sphere.
There is only one great circle through any two points on the sphere’s surface, except if the points
are at the two ends of a diameter when an infinite number of great circles are possible. Examples of
great circle are the equator, the ecliptic and the meridians.
Small Circle
A Small Circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which does not pass through the
centre of the sphere. Example is parallel of latitudes.
Poles of a great circle are two points on the sphere from where every point on the great circle is 90 o
away from these points. Every great circle will have two poles which are diametrically opposite.

GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES
We know that every point on the surface of the sphere is equidistant from its center and any point is
similar to every other point. As the earth is rotating about its axis therefore the two points where the
axis meets the earth’s surface (the two poles of earth) are different from any other points. Thus, grid of
great circles passing through the poles (meridians) and circles (parallels of latitude) whose plane is
perpendicular to the axis can be drawn on the earth’s sphere. The horizontal and vertical reference grids
are the Equator and the Prime meridian. From these references the two coordinates in horizontal and
vertical planes are required to pin-point any place on the surface of the earth. The two coordinates are
Latitude and Longitude of the place on the surface of the earth and are referred as Geographical
coordinates.
Equator
The equator is a great circle on the surface of the earth, the plane of which is perpendicular to the
earth’s axis. The equator divides the earth into the north and the south hemispheres. Latitudes are
measured North or South from the equator.
Parallels of Latitude
Parallels of latitude are small circles on the earth’s surface, the planes of which are parallel to the
plane of the equator. All parallels of latitude run East-West.
Meridians
Meridians are semi-great circles on the surface of the earth, joining the two poles. The other half of the
same great circle forms yet another meridian. All meridians intersect the equator and parallels of
latitude at 90°. Since the meridians join the poles, all meridians run North-South.

Prime Meridian
Prime meridian is the meridian which passes through Greenwich. The other meridians are named
East or West from the prime meridian.
Latitude
Latitude of a point or an observer is the angle between plane of equator and vertical to the surface at
that point. Latitudes are measured from 0° to 90°, and named North or South according to the place
being North or South of the equator.

Longitude
Longitude is the arc of the Equator or the angle at the poles contained between the prime meridian
and the meridian through that place. Longitudes are measured from 0° to 180°, and named East or
West according to the place being East or West of the prime meridian.
In Figure 1.3
• O is centre of the earth,
• NOS is the earth’s axis,
• N and S are two geographic poles of the earth. (North and South poles respectively),
W GEG’W is equator (also a great circle),
• LAL is the parallel of Latitude (also a small circle) passing through point A,
• L′BL′ is the parallel of latitude (also small circle) passing through point B,
• NAHS is the meridian passing through point A,
NFBS is the meridian passing through point B,
• Angle AOH or arc AH is the latitude of point A,
• NOGS is Prime meridian, and
• Arc GH or Angle GOH is the longitude of point A.
DIFFERENCE IN LATITUDE AND DIFFERENCE IN LONGITUDE
Difference in Latitudes (d′lat)

The d′lat between two places is the arc of a meridian or angle at the centre of earth contained between the
parallels of latitude through the two places.

D′lat is named North or South according to the direction from the first place to the second, e.g. d′lat
from 20°N to 5°N is 15°S and d′lat from 11°S to 12°N is 23°N.
Difference in Longitude (d′long)
The d′long between two places is the shorter arc of the equator or the smaller angle at the poles
contained between the meridians through the two places. D′long is named East or West according
to the direction from the first place to the second place. The following examples will make it more
clear.
From to d′long : 065°E 100°E = 35°E , 085°W 010°W = 75°E , 020°E 030°W = 50°W , 162°W 171°E =
27°W, 172°E 175°W = 13°E
The shorter arc crosses the 180th Meridian and therefore the d′long is named in the direction of the 180th
meridian from the first place.
Mean Latitude
The Mean latitude between two latitudes is the arithmetic mean between them.

Figure 1.4 represents the earth in which

C = Centre of the earth,
P = North Pole,

QQ′ = The equator,

A and B = Two places on the earth,
LAL = Latitude of A,
PAA′P′ = Longitude of A,
L′BL′ = Latitude of B,
PBB′P′ = Longitude of B, and
A′CB′ = Difference in longitude between A and B.
Example 1.1
Mean lat between 20ºN and 30ºN is 25ºN
Mean lat between 10º20′S and 30º30′S is 20º25′S
Mean lat from 10º20′S to 30º30′N :
D′lat = 40º50′N ½ d′lat = 20º25′N
So mean lat = 30º30′N – 20º25′N = 10º05′N
or, Mean lat = 20º25′N – 10º20′S = 10º05′N.

UNITS OF DISTANCE AND SPEED

Various units are used for measuring distances on the surface of the earth. Normally, Nautical mile is the
unit used for measuring distances on board ships.
International Nautical Mile
The international nautical mile or nautical mile at any place is the length of the arc of a meridian
subtending an angle of 1' at the centre of curvature of that place. As length of one nautical mile (NM)
changes with latitude, mean length of one nautical mile is 1852.3 meters.

In Figure 1.5 (Below)

• WSEASNB is a meridian.
• WOE is equator.
• Arc EA is length of 1 Nautical Mile near equator.
• Arc NB is length of 1 Nautical Mile near pole.
• Arc NB and EA are making same angle of 1 minute at their respective centers. But length of arc
NB is greater than length of arc EA. So length of nautical mile depends upon observer’s
latitude and is given by the formula Nautical mile = 1852.3 – 9.4 cos Latitude (meters)
Cable
Cable is 1/10th of a nautical mile that means there are 10 cables in one nautical mile and is equal to
about 185 m.
Knot
Knot is the unit of speed and is the speed of ship expressed in nautical miles per hour.
Geographical Mile
Geographical mile is the length of the arc of the equator subtending an angle of 1' at the centre of
the earth. It is constant in length, equal to 1855.3 m.
Statute Mile
Statute or land mile is an arbitrary measure of length which is equal to 1609.3 meters.
Kilometre

Kilometre is the unit of length which is equal to 1000 metres and is 1/10,000 th of distance from equator
to poles.

SAQ 1
(a) Find and write position of Little Basses Reef (East Coast of Ceylon) in Latitude and longitude.
(b) Find d′lat and mean lat in following cases :
(c) Find d′long in following cases :

SUMMARY
Earth is an ellipsoid. Position of any place on earth is known by two co-ordinates – latitude and
longitude. Latitude is measured from equator and longitude is measured from prime meridian. At sea,
distances are measured in nautical miles and speed in knots. When we say that a ship’s speed is 12 kts, it
means that she covers 12 nautical miles in one hour.

KEY WORDS
Equator : A great circle the plane of which is perpendicular to the earth’s axis. Latitudes are measured
from equator.

The Earth Prime Meridian : Is the meridian passing through Greenwich from where Longitudes are
measured.
Latitude : Angular distance from equator of any place named north or south expressed in degrees and
minutes.
Longitude : Angular distance from prime meridian of any place named east or west expressed in degrees
and minutes.
D′lat : Difference in latitude expressed in degrees and minutes.
D′long : Difference in longitude expressed in degrees and minutes.
Knots : Distance travelled in nautical miles in one hour.

ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
(a) 06° 24.5′ N 081° 43.6′E
(b) D′lat lat Mean lat
(i) 3° 05′ N (i) 8° 42.5′ N
(ii) 5° 05′ S (ii) 12°37.5′ N
(iii) 34° 25′ N (iii) 1° 02.5′ N
(iv) 19° 55′N (iv) 20′12.5’ S
(c) (i) 10° 05′ E
(ii) 0° 55′ W
(iii) 2 ° 28′ E
(iv) 67° 05 E.