WARSASH MARITIME ACADEMY

-TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION-

COURSE HANDBOOK

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Teaching Plan

Item Topic
1. Terrestrial Co-ordinates. Latitude. Longitude.

2. Basic Terrestrial Calculations (D’Lat / D’Long)

3. Distance. Minutes of Arc. Nautical Mile.

4. Direction and Quadrantal Notation.

5. Departure

6. Parallel Sailing

7. Plane Sailing

8. Mercator Sailing.

9. Great Circle Sailing. Distance. Initial Course. Vertex.

10. Great Circle Sailing. Composite Great Circles.

11. Time.

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:

1. To achieve a PASS, candidates must be able to:

 Extract relevant data from the appropriate sources
 Use and transpose the appropriate formulae, as required
 Enter data correctly and carry out calculations to the appropriate precision

 Calculate the Final Position from an Initial Position, the Course and Distance
 Calculate the Course and Distance between two Positions
 Calculate the Distance, Waypoints, Vertex, Initial Course using Great Circle
Sailing and Composite Great Circle Sailing methods
 Calculate Estimated Time of Arrival or Average Speed using Zone Time and
Standard Time.
 Show that they not only understand what is required from the questions,
but that their answers are both correct in principle and expressed to within
the following tolerances:
(i) Courses and Bearings to ½
(ii) Distance and Speed to 0.1 Miles/Knots

2. Allowance will be made for small mathematical (clerical) errors, provided the
method is correct in principle.

3. The candidate must be able to use their scientific calculator and recognise the
values calculated. The magnitude and value of the units must always be
considered.

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1. Terrestrial Co-ordinates

The Earth
The Earth is an oblate spheroid, which means that it is sphere that is slightly
flattened at the poles.

Polar radius 3432.4M

Equatorial radius 3444.0M

The Earth is treated as a sphere for many practical purposes, the true shape being
allowed for when required.

Definitions

A Great Circle is a circle on the Earth’s surface whose plane passes through the
centre of the Earth.

A Small Circle is a circle on the Earth’s surface, whose plane does not pass through
the centre of the Earth.

The geographical poles of the Earth are the points where the axis of rotation cuts
the surface and around which the earth rotates. These are conveniently named
the North and South Poles.

The Equator is a Great Circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation
of the Earth.

Meridians of Longitude are semi-Great Circles, which pass through the geographic
poles. The Prime Meridian is the Meridian passing through the Great Transit
Instrument at the Greenwich Observatory. Longitude is named either East (E) or
West (W) measured from the Prime Meridian.

Parallels of Latitude are Small Circles passing through all points having the same
latitude. Latitude is named either North (N) or South (S) measured from the
Equator.

The position on the Earth’s surface is defined by using the co-ordinates of Latitude
and Longitude.
N. Pole

Parallel of
Latitude
Prime
Meridian
Difference
of
Latitude
Equator

Meridian
of
Difference Longitude
of
Longitude 2.
S. Pole
B

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 Basic Terrestrial Calculations

The differences of Latitude and Longitude are required for navigational

calculations.

The Difference of Latitude (D’Lat) between two points is the arc of the Meridian
between the parallels of Latitude passing through them.

The Difference of Longitude (D’Long) between two points is the angular distance
between their meridians.

The above is most easily understood if expressed visually as follows:

Example 1

Lat A 50 00’N Lat B 20 00’N D’Lat = ??????

Pos’n A (50 N)

D’Lat

Pos’n B (20 N)

Equator (0)

D’Lat is therefore the difference between Position A and Position B.

Therefore, 50 00’N minus 20 00’N = 30 00’

The vessel is moving from A to B and is therefore going South, towards the
Equator.

Therefore D’Lat is named as South and expressed as follows: 30 00’S

Example 2
Lat A 22 56’N Lat B 59 54’N D’Lat ?????

Pos’n B (59 54’ N)

D’Lat

Pos’n A (22 56’ N)

Equator (0)
D’Lat = 59 54’N - 22 56’N = 36 58’N

(The vessel is going from nearer the Equator towards the North Pole and so is
named North.)

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Example 3

Lat A 24 15’S Lat B 15 45’N D’Lat???

Pos’n B (15 45’ N)

D’Lat Equator (0)

Pos’n A (24 15’ S)

From the diagram, it can be seen that the distance from Position A to the Equator
is 24 15’ and from the Equator to position B 15 45’

It follows therefore that:

D’Lat = 24 15’ + 15 45’ = 40 00’ N

(The vessel is proceeding from S through the Equator towards the North Pole i.e. it
is going North).

D’Long (Difference of Longitude) is calculated in a similar way, working from the

prime meridian of Greenwich which has a value of 0.

Example 4

Long A 25 00’E Long B 64 00’E D’Long?????

(To understand the diagram, imagine

that you are in space looking down NP
on the North Pole of the Earth) Pos’n A (65 00’E)

G Pos’n A (25 00’E)

(0)
Therefore, D’long is from A to B heading East (E). So, it follows that:

D’Long = 65 00’ minus 25 00’ = 4000’E

(The vessel is heading from less East to more East, so it is going East)

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Example 5

Long A 25 15’E Long B 45 32’W D’Long?????

Long B 45 32’W

Long A 25 15’E
G
(0)

From the drawing, it can be seen that from the Prime Meridian (Greenwich - 0)
Position A is 25 15’ to the East and Position B is 45 32’to the West. The direction
of travel is from East to West therefore D’long will be named West (W):

Therefore D’Long = 25 15’E + 45 32’W = 70 47’W

Example 6

When the vessel’s course takes it across the International Date Line, the above
method may still be used for the calculation of D’Long as follows:-

Position A 150 00’E Position B 140 00’W D’Long ?????

180
180 - 140 00’ = 40 00’ 180 - 150 00’ = 30 00’

Long B 140 00’W Long A 150 00’E’E

G
(0)

From Position A to the Date Line = 180 - 150 = 30E

From the Date Line to Position B = 180 - 140 = 40E

Therefore, from position A to Position B = 30 + 40 = 70 00’E

(The direction of travel is E)

An alternative method to give the same answer, is to add the two longitudes
together and subtract from 360 as follows:

360 - (150 00’E + 140 00’W) = 70 00’E

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1. Calculate the D’Lat between Position A and Position B in Degrees and
Minutes and Minutes only, stating the direction.

a) A 19 26’N B 87 39’N (68 13.’0N / 4093’.0N)

b) A 38 04’N B 10 15’N (27 49’.0S / 1669’.0S)

c) A 42 01’N B 68 18’S (110 19’.0S / 6619’S)

d) A 57 52’S B 72 10’S (14 18’.0S / 858’.0S)

e) A 42 12’S B 28 04’S (14 08’.0N / 848’.0N)

f) A 17 16’S B 38 52’N (56 08’.0N / 3368’.0N)

2. Calculate the D’Long between Position A and Position B in Degrees and

Minutes and Minutes only, stating the direction.

a) A 073 15’E B 169 55’E (96 40’.0E / 5800’.0E)

b) A 076 40’E B 046 48’E (29 52’.0W / 1792’W)

c) A 127 04’W B 177 39’W (5035’.0W / 3035’.W)

d) A 126 00’W B 021 36’W (104 24’.0E / 6264’.E)

e) A 053 16’E B 015 28’W (68 44’.0W / 4124’.0W)

f) A 059 24’W B 028 48’E (88 12’.0E / 5292’.0E)

g) A 124 33’E B 168 50’W (66 37’.0E / 3997’.0E)

h) A 106 01’W B 100 26’E (153 33’.0W / 9213’.0W)

3. Calculate the Latitude of B

a) A 47 15’N D’Lat 496’N (55 31’.0N)

b) A 11 20’N D’Lat 292’S (06 28’.0N)

c) A 23 07’N D’Lat 5162’S (62 55’.0S)

d) A 83 36’S D’Lat 75’S (84 51’.0S)

e) A 34 49’S D’Lat 1749’N (05 40’.0S)

f) A 81 59’S D’Lat 6568’N (27 30’.0N)

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4. Calculate the Longitude of B

a) A 042 07’E D’Long 1809’E (072 16’.0E)

b) A 071 17’E D’Long 2288’W (033 09’.0E)

c) A 167 02’E D’Long 3369’E (136 49’.0W)

d) A 062 06’E D’Long 8629’W (81 43’.0W)

e) A 169 23’W D’Long 263’W (173 46’.0W)

f) A 116 28’W D’Long 1343’E (094 05’.0W)

g) A 159 07’W D’Long 4774’W (121 19’.0E)

h) A 060 18’W D’Long 5033’E (23 35’.0E)

5. Calculate the D’Lat and D’long in minutes stating the direction

a) A 22 25’N 025 01’E (2678’.0N / 670’.0E)

B 67 03’N 036 11’E

b) A 56 47’N 095 46’E (2116’.0S / 2451’.0E)

B 21 31’N 136 37’E

c) A 41 19’N 173 42’E (1556’.0S / 313’.0W)

B 15 23’N 168 29’E

d) A 19 26’N 118 37’E (1566’.0N / 1911’.0W)

B 45 32’N 086 46’E

e) A 09 21’S 162 43’W (2726’.0N / 1209’.0E)

B 36 05’N 142 34’W

f) A 20 42’N 105 50’W (2835’.0S / 9515’.0W)

B 26 33’S 095 35’E

g) A 03 25’S 065 42’W (4601’.0S / 367’.0W)

B 80 06’S 071 49’W

h) A 32 35’N 007 55’E (3780’.0S / 119’.0W)

B 30 25’S 005 56’E

i) A 51 34’S 038 20’E (2063’.0N / 7528’.0E)

B 17 11’S 163 48’E

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 j) A 76 35’S 114 18’W (7722’.0N / 8154’.0W)
B 52 07’N 109 48’E

k) A 41 08’N 156 25’W (5254’.0S / 1274’.0W)

B 46 26’S 177 39’W

6. Calculate the Latitude and Longitude of B

a) A 16 04’N 117 32’E (27 13’.0N / 111 34’.0E)

D’Lat 669’N D’Long 358’W

b) A 08 17’S 004 30’E (06 51’.0S / 005 09’0E)

D’Lat 86’N D’Long 39’E

c) A 11 35’S 105 50’W (19 47’.0S / 087 15’.0W)

D’Lat 492’S D’Long 1115’E

d) A 27 18’N 094 19’W (24 52’.0N / 102 07’.0W)

D’Lat 146’S D’Long 468’W

e) A 27 58’N 001 14’E (26 53’.0S / 000 55’.0W)

D’Lat 3291’S D’Long 129’W

f) A 43 37’S 008 35’E (33 39’.0N / 004 00’.0W)

D’Lat 4636’N D’Long 755’W

g) A 44 31’S 017 23’W (07 38’.0N / 012 32’.0E)

D’Lat 3129’N D’Long 1795’E

h) A 05 09’N 000 08’W (02 17’.0S / 001 21’.0E)

D’Lat 446’S D’Long 89’E

i) A 59 13’N 163 19’E (14 35’.0S / 175 55’.0W)

D’Lat 4428’S D’Long 1246’E

j) A 43 01’S 176 47’E (30 46’.0N / 155 38’.0W)

D’Lat 4427’N D’Long 1655’E

k) A 30 32’S 166 01’W (15 06’.0N / 169 15’.0E)

D’Lat 2738’N D’Long 1484’W

l) A 43 26’N 178 52’W (38 38’.0S / 152 08’.0E)

D’Lat 4924’S D’Long 1740’W

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 3. Distance

A Nautical Mile is the length of one minute of arc of the Meridian in the Latitude of
the place concerned. This distance varies due to the spheroid shape of the earth.
However, minutes of arc are used as Nautical Miles for practical navigation and the
International Nautical Mile has been standardised at 1852 metres.

N.B. Certain navigational calculations give answers in Degrees and Minutes,

which must be converted to minutes to give distance in Nautical Miles.

Example 1

Convert to 25 17’ to Nautical Miles

25 17’ x 60 = 1517’.0M

Example 2

Convert 1596.4M to its angle

1596.4 ÷ 60 = 26.607 = 26 36’.4

When considering distance, speed is usually involved. Speed may be

mathematically worked out as follows:

Speed = Distance ÷ Time

A convenient means of transposing the above formula is shown thus:

Distance

Speed Time

It can be seen therefore that:

Speed = Distance ÷ Time

Distance = Speed x Time

Time = Distance ÷ Speed

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4. Direction

Directions may be expressed in either quadrantal notation or 360 notation.

Conversion from one to the other is a necessary skill to develop.

If Quadrantal notation is used, the course is expressed as a number of degrees

from N or S towards E or W and is expressed as follows:-

N Co E Course = 000 + Co
S Co E Course = 180 – Co
N Co W Course = 360 - Co
S Co W Course = 180 + Co

1. Express the following in 360 notation

a) N 50 E

b) S 79 E

c) S 37 W

d) N 49 W

e) N 82 E

f) S 59 W

g) S 2 E

2. Convert the following to Quadrantal notation

a) 061

b) 123

c) 237

d) 299

e) 342

f) 025

g) 256

h) 169

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Answers

1a. 050T

1b. 101T

1c. 217T

1d. 311T

1e. 082T

1f. 239T

1g. 178T

2a. N 61 E

2b. S 57 E

2c. S 57 W

2d. N 61 W

2e. N 18 W

2f. N 25 E

2g. S 76 W

2h. S 11 E

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 5. Departure

Departure (Dep) is the distance in Nautical Miles along a parallel of Latitude,

between two meridians. The Departure between two meridians varies from a
maximum at the Equator to zero at the Poles.

At the Equator, the Parallel of Latitude is a Great Circle and the units of Departure
and Difference of Longitude (D’Long) are equal. At all other Latitudes, the Parallel
of Latitude is a Small Circle and units of D’Long are smaller than units of Dep with
a mathematical relationship expressed as follows:-

Dep = D’Long x Cos Lat

Practical calculations involve calculating Dep from D’Long or calculating D’long

from Dep. Theoretical calculations involve calculating the Latitude, knowing the
Dep and D’Long.

These calculations involve transposition of formula and the units used must be
appropriate.

D’Long must be converted to minutes to give an answer for Dep in Miles.

Similarly, if the Dep is known, it will be in Miles and therefore the answer for
D’Long will be expressed in minutes and must then be converted back to
Degrees and Minutes.

Latitude MUST always be left as degrees and minutes.

A format for remembering how to transpose formulae is shown below:-

Dep

D’Long Cos Lat

Therefore using the above triangle, it can be seen that:-

Dep = D’Long x Cos Lat

D’Long = Dep ÷ Cos Lat

Cos Lat = Dep ÷ D’Long

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 6. Parallel Sailing

Prior to the invention of the marine chronometer, accurate time keeping being
required for the calculation of Longitude, navigators generally had to resort to
sailing only due North, South, East or West or not sailing far out of sight of land.
The vessel would sail North or South and measure her Latitude daily. When she
reached the parallel of latitude that her destination port was on, she would then
sail East or west along that. This method of sailing is known as Parallel Sailing.

In Parallel Sailing, the Distance between two points on the same parallel of
latitude is the Departure between their Meridians.

Therefore, using the Parallel Sailing formulae of Dep = D’Long x Cos Lat, calculate
the following:

1. Calculate the distance from Position A to Position B

A 40 00’ N 040 00’E

B 40 00’ N 057 00’E

2. Calculate the final position after steaming 270T for 345M from:

A 36 00’S 019 00’E

3. Calculate the Latitude in which a D’Long of 34 14’ corresponds to a Dep of

1280.0M

4. Calculate the Dep corresponding to 8 16’ of D’Long in Lat 38 19N

5. Calculate the D’long corresponding to 1125M Dep in Lat 59 21’S

6. Calculate the Lat in which D’Long 146’ equates to a Departure of 101M

7. Calculate the Course and Distance from position A to position B:

A 31 18’S 178 15’W

B 31 18’S 174 19’E

8. Calculate the final position after travelling:

000 x 540M
090 x 540M
180 x 540M
270 x 540M

Departure position 49 00’N 160 00’W

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Answers

1. 781.4M

2. 36 00’S 011 53’.6E)

3. 51 27’.1

4. 389.2M

5. 36 46’.8

6. 46 13’.7

7. Course 270 T Dist 381.1M

8. 49 00’N 156 44’.1W

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 7. Plane Sailing

Over limited distances, the Earth may be regarded as being flat. Therefore, the
principles of Plane Sailing may be used over distances up to 600M.

When following a Rhumb line (a course that cuts each meridian of Longitude at the
same angle), the track may be subdivided into numerous right-angled triangles.
The sides of the triangles are:

D’Lat: Dep: Distance. The angle would be the course.

So for a vessel travelling on a course of 135T for a certain distance, the triangle
would look thus:

N
*Course 135 = S 45 E
135
Position A

*45 Dist
D’Lat

Position B
Dep

Following geometrical principles of SOH, CAH, TOA it can be seen that:

Sin Course = Dep ÷ Dist

Cos Course = D’Lat ÷ Dist

Tan Course = Dep ÷ D’Lat

Transposition of formulae is required.

Departure MUST be converted to D’Long and they have the following relationship

Dep = D’Long x Cos Mean Lat

(The Mean Lat is the Average Latitude of Position A and Position B and is found by:

Position A ± (D’Lat ÷ 2) OR

(Lat A ± Lat B) ÷ 2

You do not need to name Mean Lat N or S, as it is only the figure that is required
for the above calculation.

Therefore, D’Long = Dep ÷ Cos Mean Lat and is named the same as Dep.
Worked Examples

Calculate the DR position B

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1. Position A: 53 32’N 000 06’E
Course 069T
Distance 321M

Course 069 = N 69 E

D’Lat = Dist x Cos Course

= 321 x Cos 69
= 115’.0
= 1 55’.0 N

M Lat = Lat A ± (D’Lat ÷ 2)

= 53 32’ + (1 55’.0 ÷ 2)
= 54 29’.5

Dep = Dist x Sin Co

= 321 x Sin 69
= 299.7M

D’Long = Dep ÷ Cos M Lat

= 299.7 ÷ Cos 54 29’.5
= 516’.0 E
= 8 36’.0 E

Lat B = Lat A + D’Lat Long B = Long A + D’Long

= 53 32’.0N + 1 55’.0N = 000 06’.0E + 8 36’.0E
= 55 27’.0N = 008 42’.0E

2. Calculate the Course and Distance from position A (51 43’N 001 33’E) to
position B (57 52’N 007 58’E).

Pos A 51 43’.0N 001 33’.0E

Pos B 57 52’.0N 007 58’.0E
D’Lat 6 09’.0N D’Long 6 25’.0E
=> 369’.0N 385’.0E

M’Lat = (Lat A + Lat B) ÷ 2 Dep = D’Long x Cos M Lat

= (51 43’ + 57 52’) ÷ 2 = 385 x Cos 54 47’.5
= 54 47’.5 = 222.0M

Tan Co = Dep ÷ D’Lat Dist = D’Lat ÷ Cos Co

= 222.0 ÷ 369.0 = 369.0 ÷ Cos 31
= N 31 E = 031 T = 430.5M

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Plane Sailing Exercises

1. Calculate the DR Position (Latitude and Longitude) by Plane Sailing, after

steaming from Position A for the course and distance stated in each case.

Lat A Long A Course Dist

a 22 32’N 059 48’E 131T 413M

b 25 39’S 045 05’E 238T 374M

c 28 26’N 178 27’W 307T 546M

d 68 34’N 026 27’W 045T 276M

e 53 06’S 104 24’E 237T 104M

f 00 06’N 177 07’E 288T 230M

g 76 46’N 087 07’W 143T 85M

h 24 02’S 127 16’W 062T 573M

i 30 14’N 156 58’W 232T 496M

j 01 48’S 012 47’E 145T 155M

k 26 49’N 064 39’W 090T 357M

l 21 25’S 159 50’E 000T 268M

2. Calculate the Course and Distance by Plane Sailing, of the Rhumb Line
tracks from A to B in each case.

a Position A 37 01’N 009 00’W

Position B 36 11’N 006 02’W

b Position A 36 43’N 002 11’W

Position B 37 38’N 000 41’W

c Position A 10 35’S 142 13’E

Position B 12 19’S 137 01’E

d Position A 18 02’S 178 20’E

Position B 20 19’S 175 25’W
e Position A 40 10’N 160 08’E
Position B 41 45’N 162 20’E

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f Position A 48 28’N 005 08’W
Position B 49 52’N 006 25’W

g Position A 38 03’.8S 140 40’.0E

Position B 39 35’.7S 143 56’.9E

h Position A 40 40’N 008 09’E

Position B 41 20’N 004 14’E

i Position A 54 55’.1N 001 21’.5W

Position B 53 21’.6N 005 12’.9E

j Position A 32 21’N 176 51’W

Position B 33 19’N 177 29’E

k Position A 46 21’S 152 06’E

Position B 46 21’S 080 28’E

l Position A 75 46’N 011 27’W

Position B 33 18’N 011 27’W

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Answers

1a. 18 01’.0N 065 20’.3E

1b. 28 57’.2S 039 08’.0E

1c. 33 54’.6N 173 03’.3E

1d. 71 49’.2N 016 50’.7E

1e. 54 02’.7N 101 57’.1E

1f. 01 17’.1N 173 28’.2E

1g. 75 38’.1N 083 32’.5W

1h. 19 33’.0S 11811’.1W

1i. 25 08’.6N 164 19’.4W

1j. 03 55’.0S 014 16’.0E

1k. 26 46’.0N 057 59’.0E

1l. 16 57’.0S 159 50’.0E

2a. 109T 151.4M

2b. 052½T 90.4M

2c. 251T 323.0M

2d. 111T 379.8M

2e. 046½T 137.7M

2f. 329T 97.9M

2g. 121T 178.8M

2h. 283½T 181.8M

2i. 112T 249.2M

2j. 281½T 181.8M

2k. 270T 2967.0M

2l. 180T 2548.0M

- 20 -
 8. Mercator Sailing

By far the most accurate method of making calculations by plane trigonometry is

by the use of the Mercator Sailing.

The Mercator projection is a mathematical projection of the Earth, which preserves

shape and direction, but distorts distance as shown below:

80N

40N
0

40S

80S

To ensure that the concept is understood the usual explanation is to imagine that
the earth is transparent, with just the lines of Latitude and Longitude that are
opaque on the surface. A large light bulb is then shone in the middle of the
transparent earth and a flat piece of paper is wrapped around it. Where the lines
of Latitude and Longitude show on the paper, they are then drawn in. Accordingly,
as the lines of latitude get further towards the Poles, they become further apart
until eventually, they reach infinity and the poles cannot be shown on the paper.

The properties of a Mercator Chart are:

 Rhumb lines are straight lines

 Meridians are parallel straight lines perpendicular to the Equator
 Parallels of Latitude are straight lines, parallel to the Equator
 Parallels of Latitude are not equidistant

To calculate distances, courses and positions, Meridional Parts (MP) are used.

A Meridional Part is the distance from the Equator to the Latitude and is measured
in minutes of Longitude at the Equator. The units are minutes of arc.

- 21 -
A more graphic method of showing the derivation of Meridian Parts is shown below.
The student can see that the distance from 0 to 30 north is laid along the equator
where it becomes 31 16’.67 or 1867.67 minutes of longitude.

Greenwich

30° N

20° N

10° N

Equator

010° W 000° 010° E 020° E 030° E 040° E 050° E

31° 16'.67 E
© JNW 2003

They are named N or S, corresponding to the same name as the latitude for which
they represent. Therefore, to calculate the Difference in Meridional Parts (DMP)
the same rules for calculating D’Lat must be applied (i.e. different names – SUM,
same names – DIFFERENCE).

The formulae to be used are as follows:

Tan Course = D’Long ÷ DMP

Distance = D’Lat ÷ Cos Course

When calculating the Distance, full precision of the Course must be used.

- 22 -
Worked Examples

1. Calculate the course and distance along a Rhumb Line track from Position A
18 25’N 060 41’W to Position B 50 17’N 007 14’W

The distance can be seen to be greater than 600M, therefore Plane Sailing is
inappropriate. Mercator Sailing must be used.

Lat A 18 25’.0N MP 1117.14 N Long 060 41’.0W

Lat B 50 17’.0N MP 3482.98 N Long 007 14’.0W
D’Lat 31 52’.0N DMP 2365.84 D’Long 53 27’.0E
=> 1912’.0N 3207’.0E

Tan Co = D’Long ÷ DMP

= 3207 ÷ 2365.84
= N53.6E => 054T

Dist = D’Lat ÷ Cos Co

= 1912 ÷ Cos 53.6
= 3222.0M

2. Calculate the position after steaming from 19 58’S 165 04’E on a course of
343T for 1962M.

The distance can be seen to be greater than 600M, therefore Plane Sailing is
inappropriate. Mercator Sailing must be used.

Co 343T = N17W

D’Lat = Dist x Cos Co

= 1962 x Cos 17
= 1876’.3 N => 31 16’.3N

Lat B = Lat A – D’Lat

= 19 58’.0 - 31 16’.3
= -11 18’.3 = 11 18’.3N

Lat A MP = 1215.02 S
Lat B MP = 678.16 N
DMP = 1893.18

D’Lon = DMP x Tan Co

= 1893.18 x Tan 17
= 578’.8W => 9 38’.8W

Long B = Long A – D’Long

= 165 04’.0E - 9 38’.8W
= 155 25’.2E

- 23 -
Mercator Sailing Exercises

1. Calculate the Rhumb Line Course and Distance from position A to Position B.

a Position A 50 10’N 005 53’W

Position B 38 14’N 016 11’W

b Position A 32 12’N 032 12’E

Position B 35 52’N 014 32’E

c Position A 08 06’N 024 42’W

Position B 06 16’S 034 12’W

d Position A 20 05’N 156 51’W

Position B 23 17’N 177 47’E

e Position A 12 42’N 054 22’E

Position B 24 40’N 067 03’E

f Position A 34 42’S 150 12’E

Position B 40 40’S 172 44’E

g Position A 05 33’S 168 12’E

Position B 12 12’N 169 59’W

h Position A 12 43’N 050 02’W

Position B 04 13’S 034 55’W

i Position A 25 15’S 166 56’E

Position B 24 52’S 166 56’W

j Position A 17 10’S 005 14’W

Position B 00 06’N 005 14’E

k Position A 40 15’N 012 12’W

Position B 52 17’N 043 10’W

l Position A 02 53’S 165 18’W

Position B 02 53’N 178 53’E

- 24 -
2. Calculate the latitude and Longitude of Position B.

Lat A Long A Course Dist

a 07 22’N 059 43’E 021T 786M

b 18 29’S 095 11’E 132T 627M

c 29 30’S 088 43’W 216T 1844M

d 07 12’N 170 47’W 297T 1065M

e 09 34’N 018 04’W 127T 2556M

f 14 06’S 164 31’E 042T 2277M

g 02 17’N 005 24’E 242T 589M

h 14 18’S 171 11’W 302T 2153M

- 25 -
Answers

1a. 211½T 841.6M

1b. 284T 909.3M

1c. 213½T 1034.7M

1d. 277½T 1435.3M

1e. 045T 1019.4M

1f. 108½T 1131.6M

1g. 051T 1688.6M

1h. 138T 1362.1M

1i. 089T 1428.5M

1j. 031T 1208.7M

1k. 299½T 1470.5M

1l. 290T 1015.8M

2a. 19 35’.8N 064 31’.4E

2b. 25 28’.5S 103 31’.0E

2c. 54 21’.8S 113 25’.6W

2d. 15 15’.5N 173 11’.0E

2e. 16 04’.2S 016 04’.2E

2f. 14 06’.1N 170 00’.1W

2g. 01 23’.6S 003 38’.5W

2h. 04 42’.9N 158 20’.5E

- 26 -
 9. Great Circle Sailing

The shortest distance between two points on the Earth’s surface is a Great Circle.
Following a Great Circle track minimises passage time and Fuel Consumption.

A Gnomonic Chart is usually used to plot a Great Circle Track. The properties of a
Gnomonic Chart are:
 Great circles are straight lines
 Meridians (Longitude) are straight Lines
 Parallels of Latitude are curved lines

A Gnomonic projection is created by theoretically laying a piece of paper over the

Latitude at which the projection is to be drawn and tracing the lines of latitude
and longitude onto it, as if the Earth was transparent and a light-bulb was
positioned at its centre.

Gnomonic Projection Gnomonic Chart Mercator Chart

Great Circle
Route A Great Circle A Great Circle Route
Route appears as appears as drawn from
a straight line on Waypoint to Waypoint on
a Gnomonic a Mercator Chart
Chart
Great Circles may be drawn onto a Gnomonic Chart and then the waypoints
transferred to a Mercator Chart for Navigational purposes. On the Mercator Chart,
Rhumb Line tracks will then be drawn from Waypoint to Waypoint.

Navigational Great Circle calculations involve solution of the spherical triangle

formed by the Meridians of Departure and destination and the Great Circle passing
through them.

A derivation of Napier’s rules for finding distance is shown as follows:-

Cos Distance = Cos D’Long x Cos Lat A x Cos Lat B ± Sin Lat A x Sin Lat B

If the Latitudes are the Same – ADD

If the Latitudes are Different – SUBTRACT

The resultant distance from the above calculation will be expressed in degrees and
minutes. To turn into miles, you must multiply by 60.

- 27 -
To find the Initial Course, ABC formulae may be used. The Course a ship will
follow, changes continuously along a Great Circle, so the Initial Course is only good
for the Departure position.

Full precision should be used for the values of A, B and C, particularly if the result
is to be used in further calculations.

A, B and C are absolute values without ± signs. Any signs shown on your calculator
should be ignored. They are however, named. Naming the values of A and B will
determine if they should be added or subtracted to give C and additionally, name
the initial Quadrantal of the Course (i.e. N and E/W or S and E/W).

Therefore:

A = Tan Lat A ÷ Tan D’Long

If D’long < 90 - name opposite to Lat A

If D’Long > 90 - name same as Lat A

B = Tan Lat B ÷ Sin D’Long

Name same as Lat B

C=A±B

Same names, +
Different Names, –

Tan Initial Course = (1 ÷ C ÷ Cos Lat A)

The result will be in Quadrantal format.

N/S named same as C
E/W named same as D’Long

The result must now be converted to 360 notation.

- 28 -
 Napier’s Rules

Right-angled Spherical Triangles can be solved with the aid of Napier’s Rules which
you will remember from your academic ramp are:

Sin middle part = Cos opposite x Cos opposite or:

Sin middle part = Tan adjacent x Tan adjacent .

Mathematical Convention reminders:

Sin (90 –  ) = Cos 
Cos (90 –  ) = Sin 
Tan (90 –  ) = Cotan  (i.e 1  Tan  )

Take the triangle in the figure below:

90°

A
p

In this right-angled spherical triangle, P is the pole, and A ~ B is the GC route, then
a is 90° – Lat of position B (the Co Lat of B) and b is 90° – Lat of Position A (the Co
Lat of A). If we know Position A is Lat 57° 54’N and Long 37° 42’W and the
distance travelled (A ~ B) is 3406.0M, we can find the position of B as follows:

First turn the distance into degrees and minutes. 3406.0M = 56° 46’.0 This is now
p

When using Napier’s cartwheel it is the convention to start from whichever angle is
90°
A
Starting at the 90° Angle
(A) and then working
clockwise around the
b p Triangle, we can fill in the
cartwheel as follows

P a B

- 29 -
Remembering that all parts below the horizontal are a complement (i.e. 90° - the
part) the following Napier’s formula may be used:

Sin middle part = Cos opposite x Cos opposite or:

Sin middle part = Tan adjacent x Tan adjacent

We know p (the distance A ~ B in degrees and minutes) and b (90 - Lat of A).
Therefore we need to find P (D’Long A ~ B) and a (90 – Lat of B).

Sin 90 – a = Cos b x Cos p

Cos a = Cos (90 – 57°54’) x Cos 56°46’
Cos a = Sin 57° 54’ x Cos 56°46’
= 62° 20’.2

Sin 90 – P = Tan b x Tan a

Cos P = Tan (90 – 57°54’) x Tan (90 – 62° 20.8)
P = 70° 48’.6

a = 90 – Lat B (the Co Lat) and P = D’Long .

We can now find the Lat and Long of Position B as follows:

90° Long A 37° 42’.0W

a 62° 20’.2 D’Long 70° 48’.6W
Lat B = 27° 39’.8N Long B 108° 30’.6W

- 30 -
 Worked Example:

Given Position A is Lat 45° 26’.0N Long 021° 15’.1E, find the distance travelled and
the position of B if the D’long A~B is 68° 12’.2W and the final course was 270°T?

a b
A

B p
A D’Long W

p a

A P

B = 90° (The final course is 270°)

b = Co lat A => 90° - Lat A => 90° - 45° 26’.0 = 44° 34’.0
P = D’Long = 68° 12’.2

Therefore p = Distance and a = Co lat of Position B

Sin p = Cos opp x Cos opp

Sin p = Cos P x Cos b
Sin p = Sin 68° 12’.2 x Sin 44° 34’.0
p = 40° 39’.6
Dist = 2439.6M

Sin a = Tan adj x Tan adj

Sin a = Tan p x Tan P
Sin a = Tan 40° 39’.6 x Tan (90 - 68° 12’.2)
Sin a = Tan 40° 39’.6 x Tan 21° 47’.8
a = 20° 05’.4 = Co Lat of B

Lat B = 90° - 20° 05’.4 = 69° 54’.6N

Long B = Long A ± D’Long
= 21° 15’.1E - 68° 12’.2W
= 46° 57’.1E

- 31 -
Vertex

The vertex of a Great Circle is the point of maximum Latitude. It is calculated to

determine if a Composite Great Circle needs to be used (of which more later). At
the vertex, the Meridian is perpendicular to the Great Circle. The course at the
vertex must therefore be either 090°T or 270°T.

Great Circle
Route appears as
a straight line

Vertex

Great Circle
Route

A V B

The vertex may be either behind or in front of the Initial Position. An example
would be the Great Circle route from New York to Cape Town, where the Vertex is
in the middle of Canada! However, you must remember that there are always 2
Vertices.

To find the vertex, its D’Long from Position A must be calculated and named
subsequently either E or W from Position A.

The D’Long of the vertex may be calculated by a derivation of Napier’s Rules as

follows:-

Tan D’Long A to V = 1 ÷ Tan Initial Course ÷ Sin Lat A

(The Quadrantal value of the initial course MUST be used)

A thumbnail diagram is then drawn, to determine if the Vertex is before or after

Position A and therefore whether it is named E or W

The Latitude of the vertex may be calculated as follows:-

Cos Lat V = Sin Initial Course x Cos Lat A

(The Quadrantal value of the initial course MUST be used)
The Latitude will always be in the same hemisphere as Position A.
Worked Examples:

- 32 -
1. On a Great Circle track, find the Distance, the Initial Course and the
Latitude and Longitude of the Vertex from:
Norfolk (Virginia,USA)36 51’N 076 19’W
To Ushant (France) 48 38’N 005 18’W

Pos A 36 51’N 076 19’W

Pos B 48 38’N 005 18’W
D’Long 71 01’E

Cos Distance = Cos D’Long x Cos Lat A x Cos Lat B ± Sin Lat A x Sin Lat B
= Cos 71 01’ x Cos 36 51’ x Cos 48 38’ + Sin 36 51’ x Sin 48 38’
= 51 31’.8
= 3091.7M

A = Tan Lat A ÷ Tan D’Long

= Tan 36 51’ ÷ Tan 71 01’
= 0.2578 S

B = Tan Lat B ÷ Sin D’Long

= Tan 48 38’ ÷ Sin 71 01’
= 1.2009 N

C=A±B
= 0.2578 – 1.2009
= 0.9431 N

Tan Initial Course = (1 ÷ C ÷ Cos Lat A)

= (1 ÷ 0.9431 ÷ Cos 36 51’) Np
= N 52.9 E => 053T

Tan D’Long A to V = 1 ÷ Tan Initial Course ÷ Sin Lat A

V
= 1 ÷ Tan 52.9 ÷ Sin 36 51’ B
= 51 35’.2 E
A
Long V = Long A – D’long A to V
= 76 19’ – 51 35.2
= 24 43’.8 W

Cos Lat V = Sin Initial Course x Cos Lat A

= Sin 52.9 x Cos 36 51’
= 50 20’.4 N

- 33 -
Great Circle Sailing Exercises

1. Calculate the Distance, Initial Course and position of the Vertex on the
Great Circle tracks between the following positions:

a. Malin Head (Ireland) 55 22’N 007 24’W

Main Brook (Newfoundland) 51 10’N 056 00’W

b. La Paloma (Uruguay) 34 37’S 054 09’W

Cape Town (South Africa) 33 56’S 018 26’E

c. Cape Flattery (Washington, USA) 48 23’N 124 43’W

Choshi (Japan) 35 43’N 140 51’E

d. Ushant (France) 48 25’N 005 05’W

Ubu (Brazil) 20 47’S 040 35’W

e. Maputo (Mozambique) 25 59’S 032 34’E

Strahan (Tasmania, Australia) 42 10’S 145 20’E

Answers

a. 1725.8M 282T 56 15’.2N 022 05’.8W

b. 3514.0M 112T 40 13’.3S 018 51’.5W

c. 4005.0M 298T 54 11’.3N 160 24’.1W

d. 4567.7M 214T 68 12’.8N 058 08’.5E

e. 5275.3M 137T 52 03’.9S 100 14’.4E

- 34 -
Waypoints

As practically, all great circle tracks will follow a Rhumb Line route from Waypoint
to Waypoint, the ability to calculate one is required. Either the Latitude or the
Longitude will have been given and the candidate is required to find the other
value.

On a Gnomonic Chart, it might be decided to have a Waypoint at Position W

(below).

B
P

To find the position of W (the waypoint), the first requirement is to calculate the
position of the Vertex. Once the Latitude and Longitude of the Vertex has been
calculated, the D’Long of the Waypoint from the Vertex may be calculated by
Napier’s rules as follows:
P V
p
w w
v

V P W
p
W
v

Sin 90 – P = Tan w x Tan v

 Cos P = Tan w x Tan (90 – v)
 Cos P = Tan w x CoTan v
 Cos D’Long Vertex to Waypoint = Tan Lat Waypoint ÷ Tan Lat Vertex

Depending upon what is known, the formulae may then be re-arranged as required.

- 35 -
Worked Example

1. Calculate the Latitude of a Waypoint at Longitude 041 00’W on a Great

Circle Track from: Norfolk (Virginia, USA) 36 51’N 076 19’W To Ushant
(France) 48 38’N 005 18’W

Pos A 36 51’N 076 19’W

Pos B 48 38’N 005 18’W
D’Long 71 01’E

A = Tan Lat A ÷ Tan D’Long

= Tan 36 51’ ÷ Tan 71 01’
= 0.2578 S

B = Tan Lat B ÷ Sin D’Long

= Tan 48 38’ ÷ Sin 71 01’
= 1.2009 N

C=A±B
= 0.2578 – 1.2009
= 0.9431 N

Tan Initial Course = (1 ÷ C ÷ Cos Lat A)

= (1 ÷ 0.9431 ÷ Cos 36 51’) Np
= N 52.9 E => 053T
V
Tan D’Long A to V = 1 ÷ Tan Initial Course ÷ Sin Lat A B
= 1 ÷ Tan 52.9 ÷ Sin 36 51’
= 51 35’.2 E A

Long V = Long A – D’long A to V

= 76 19’ – 51 35.2
= 24 43’.8 W

Cos Lat V = Sin Initial Course x Cos Lat A

= Sin 52.9 x Cos 36 51’
= 50 20’.4 N

D’Long Vertex to Waypoint = 24 43’.8W to 041 00’W = 16 16’.2 E

Cos D’long V – W = Tan lat W  Tan Lat V

Therefore
Tan Lat W = Cos D’Long Vertex to Waypoint x Tan Lat Vertex
= Cos 16 16’.2 x Tan 50 20’.4
= 49 11’.1N

Latitude of the Waypoint at Longitude 041 00’W is 49 11’.1N

- 36 -
Waypoint Exercises

1. Calculate the Latitude of the Waypoint at Longitude 040 00’E on a Great

Circle route from Durban (29 53’S 03102’E) to Perth (31 57’S 115 52’E).

2. Calculate the Latitude of the Waypoint at Longitude 010 00’E on a Great

Circle track from Saldanha Bay (33 02’S 017 18’E) to Norfolk
(36 51’N 076 19’W).

3. Calculate the latitude of the Waypoint at Longitude 130 00’W on a Great

Circle Track from Colon (09 21’N 079 55’W) to Tokomaru (38 08’S 178
20’E)

4. Calculate the Latitude of the Waypoint at Longitude 140 00’E on a Great

Circle track from Greymouth (42 26’N 171 13’E) to Port Elizabeth
(33 57’S 025 39’E).

5. Calculate the Longitude of the Waypoint at Latituide 20 00’N on a Great

Circle track from New York (40 43’N 074 04’W) to Cape Town
(33 56’N 018 26’E)

6. Calculate the Longitude of the Waypoint at Latituide 20 00’S on a Great

Circle track from Auckland (36 51’S 174 45’E) to Los Angeles
(33 43’N 118 17’W).

Answers

1. 33 18’.6S

2. 29 01’.2S

3. 25 47’.0S

4. 40 33’.6 N

5. 36 28’.1 E

6. 166 01’.5W

- 37 -
Composite Great Circles

The vertex of a Great circle may be in high Latitudes where adverse currents,
weather, or ice may be found, or it may pass through a landmass. Therefore, a
Composite Great circle must be considered. This is normally in three parts as
follows:

 From Position A follow a Great Circle track to the Limiting Latitude at V1

 A Parallel Sailing along the Limiting Latitude between V1 and V2
 A Great circle Sailing from the Limiting Latitude at V2 to Position B

Limiting Latitude

True Great Circle Route

Position A P

Position B
V1 V2

Composite Great Circle Route

The Latitude of V1 and V2 is the Limiting Latitude.

The Departure or Arrival positions may be on the Limiting Latitude.
As the triangles involved are right angled (the 90 angle occurring at V1 and V2),
Napier’s rules may be used as follows:
V1
P

a a p
v1

P A
V1 v1
p

Sin a = Cos 90 - A x Cos 90 – v1

Sin Co Lat V1 = Sin Initial Course x Cos Lat A
Cos Lat V1 = Sin Initial Course x Cos Lat A

- 38 -
Therefore re-arranged:
Sin Initial Course = Cos Lat V1 ÷ Cos Lat A

The result will be the Quadrantal Course and must be converted to 360 notation as
follows:
N/S – Same as D’Lat to Vertex
E/W – Same as D’Long to Vertex

From Napier’s Rules the following formulae may also be derived as follows:

Cos Distance A to V1 = Sin Lat A ÷ Sin Limiting Lat

Accordingly the other half of the spherical triangle may be calculated as follows:

Cos Distance V2 to B = Sin Lat B ÷ Sin Limiting Lat

To find the distance from V1 to V2 using Parallel Sailing, the Longitude of V1 and
V2 must be calculated in order to find the D’Long V1 to V2 as follows:

Cos D’Long A to V1 = Tan Lat A ÷ Tan Limiting Lat

(name same as D’Long A to B)

Cos D’Long B to V2 = Tan Lat B ÷ Tan Limiting Lat

(name opposite D’Long A to B)

D’Long V1 to V2 = D’Long A to B – D’Long A to V1 – D’Long V2 to B

(Disregard names)

Then by Parallel Sailing:

Dep = D’Long x Cos Limiting Lat

Therefore the Total Distance along a Composite Great Circle is found by adding all
the elements together as follows:

Total Distance = Distance A to V1 + Distance V1 to V2 + Distance V2 to B

N.B. YOUR FORMULA SHEETS WILL NOT HAVE THE ABOVE FORMULA. YOU WILL
HAVE TO WORK OUT AND RE-ARRANGE FORMULA ACCORDINGLY.

Worked Example

1. Find the initial Course and the total distance along a Great Circle track with
a Limiting latitude of 50 00’S from Napier, New Zealand (39 29’S 176
55’E) to Valdivia , Chile (39 49’S 073 17’W).

Pos A 39 29’S 176 55’E

Pos B 39 49’S 073 17’W
D’Long 109 48’ E

- 39 -
Sin Initial Course = Cos Lat V1 ÷ Cos Lat A
= Cos 50 00’ ÷ Cos 39 29’
= S 56.4 E => 124T

Cos Distance A to V1 = Sin Lat A ÷ Sin Limiting Lat

= Sin 39 29’ ÷ Sin 50 00’
= 33 53’.7
= 2033.7M

Cos Distance V2 to B = Sin Lat B ÷ Sin Limiting Lat

= Sin 39 49’ ÷ Sin 50 00’
= 33 17’.5
= 1997.5M

Cos D’Long A to V1 = Tan Lat A ÷ Tan Limiting Lat

= Tan 39 29’ ÷ Tan 50 00’
= 46 16’.0 E (named same as D’Long A to B)

Cos D’Long B to V2 = Tan Lat B ÷ Tan Limiting Lat

= Tan 39 49’ ÷ Tan 50 00’
= 45 36’.7 W (named opposite D’Long A to B)

D’Long V1 to V2 = D’Long A to B – D’Long A to V1 – D’Long V2 to B

= 109 48’ - 46 16’.0 - 45 36’.7
= 17 55’.3 (Disregard names)
= 1075’.3

Dep = D’Long x Cos Limiting Lat

= 1075.3 x Cos 50 00’
= 691.2

Total Distance = Distance A to V1 + Distance V1 to V2 + Distance V2 to B

= 2033.7 + 1997.5 + 691.2
= 4722.4 M

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Composite Great Circle Exercises

1. Calculate the Initial Course, Total Distance and Longitude of the Vertices on
the following Greta Circle tracks:

Position Lat Long Limiting Lat

a. Cape Race, (Newfoundland) 46 39’N 053 05’W 50 00’N

Bishop Rock (UK) 49 53’N 006 27’W

b. Cape Leeuwin (Australia) 34 22’S 115 09’E 40 00’S

Cape Agulhas (South Africa) 34 50’S 020 20’E

c. Sao Sebastio (Brazil) 23 48’S 045 24’W 33 56’S

Cape Town (South Africa) 33 56’S 018 26’E

d. San Francisco (USA) 37 48’N 122 25’W 37 48’N

Tokyo (Japan) 33 41’N 139 46’E

Answers

1a. 069T 1847.0M 025 48’.9W 011 39’.4W

1b. 248T 4518.4 M 079 44’.2E 054 18’.3E

1c. 115T 3358.7M 003 38’.4E

1d. 270T 4690.3M 170 32’.1E

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 11. Time

The Gregorian Calendar is the calendar in general use. It is designed to maintain

alignment with the Tropical Year, which comprises of 365.242 Mean Solar Days.
Therefore a common year has 365 days and a leap year has 366 days. A leap year
occurs every 4 years.

The days of the year are tabulated against days of the month and week in the
nautical almanac. It is therefore important to identify if the year in question is a
Leap Year.

To determine if a year is a Leap Year (or not), if it can be divided by 4 and the
answer is a whole or even number, that year is a Leap Year.

Examples
Year 1988 ÷ 4 = 497 (This is a Leap year as 497 is a whole or even number)

Year 1998 ÷ 4 = 499.5 (This is not a whole number and is therefore a Common Year)

Year 2000 ÷ 4 = 500 (This is a Leap year as 500 is a whole or even number)

Year 2002 ÷ 4 = 500.5 (This is not a whole number and is therefore a Common Year)

Year 2006 ÷ 4 = 501.5 (This is not a whole number and is therefore a Common Year

Year 2008 ÷ 4 = 502 (This is a Leap year as 502 is a whole or even number)

A Solar Day lasts 24 Hours and the Earth will rotate one complete revolution of
360 in that time. Therefore, Arc (Longitude) and Time may have a relationship
and be converted thus:

24 Hours 00min 00sec = 360

1 Hour 00min 00sec = 360° ÷ 24 = 15

Longitude is converted into time by dividing by 15 and the Zone that the ship is
in is the nearest whole hour.

A pneumonic for remembering how to apply time is stated as follows:-

Longitude E = UT Least
Longitude West = UT Best

Example

Long 150 45’E ÷ 15 = Zone –10 Hours

Long 9 22’W ÷ 15 = Zone +1 Hour

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Ships travelling Eastwards advance their clocks as they pass from Zone to Zone
(they are travelling towards the Sunrise). Ships travelling Westwards retard
their clocks as they pass from Zone to Zone (they are travelling away from the
Sunrise).

Ships which cross the International Date Line (the 180 Meridian) Eastwards
retard their clocks by one day effectively repeating the day. Ships which cross
the International Date Line Westwards, advance their clocks by 24 hours
effectively skipping one whole day.

Time itself is relative, as it depends where you are on the Earth’s surface. For
example if it is 0900 in the morning in the UK, it is 1830 in the evening of the same
day in Darwin (Australia). The day in the UK is just beginning whilst at the same
“time” the day in Australia is nearly over.

Therefore, time needs to be measured from some constant. This is the Greenwich
Midnight Meridian and is known as Universal Time (UT). It used to be called GMT,
but this upset the French.

Local Time is measured from the local Midnight Meridian. So in our example the
time in Darwin is 0900 UT (the same as in the UK) but their local time is 1830.

Time should always be converted back to UT for calculating purposes, particularly

over extended periods. There are two methods of calculating Time. The first and
preferred method is to convert the day of the month into the day of the year, and
the second is to just count the days of the month. To calculate an ETA for example
the following steps need to be observed:

Step 1

Convert the Longitude of the Departure position into the Zone Number
(E.g. Long 41 00’E ÷ 15 = Zone –3)

This allows the “Local time of Departure to be converted to UT by subtracting 3

hours.

Step 2

Calculate the travelling time or Time on Passage

This would be Distance ÷ Speed

(E.g. Dist 5423 Miles ÷ Speed of 14.3 Knots = 379 Hours 13 Minutes

Then the Days, Hours and Minutes need to calculated as follows:

379 ÷ 24 = 15 Days, so Time on Passage = 379 – (15 x 24) = 19 Hours

So Total Time on Passage = 15 Days, 19 Hours and 13 Minutes

Step 3

Add the above time on passage to the UT Departure Time, which gives UT Arrival
Time

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Step 4

Convert the UT Arrival Time to the Standard Time of the Arrival Port.

Standard Time

Standard Time is the legal time kept in a country. It is usually close to Zone Time,
but may be a compromise between two Zones (e.g. India which is –05H30 or there
may be more than one Standard Time kept (e.g. USA). Standard Time is tabulated
in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol. 2 (ALRS Vol. 2), or the Nautical Almanac.
In the latter, there are three tables as follows:

List I Places fast on UTC (East of Greenwich)

List II Places that normally keep UT
List III Places slow on UT (West of Greenwich)

If Summer Time is kept, this is listed and is added to the Standard Time during
Summer months. Remember that Summer in the Southern Hemisphere is the UK’s
winter months.

Worked Example

1. Calculate the ETA in New York for a vessel which left a Sea Position of 49
32’N 006 21’W on 27th January 1988 at 1536 Local and travelled for a
distance of 2963 M at a speed of 15.7 Knots.

Year 1988 ÷ 4 = 497 (A whole number therefore a Leap Year)

LiT = 6 21’W ÷ 15 = Zone 0

Departure Time = 27 Jan at 1536 UT = Day 27 at 1536 UT

Time on Passage = 2963 ÷ 15.7 = 188 Hours 44 mins

 188 ÷ 24 = 7 Days
 188 – (7 x 24) = 20 Hours
 7 Days 20 Hours 44 mins

Departure Time Day 27 at 1536 UT

Passage Time 7 days 20H 44
Arrival Time Day 34 at 36H 20
= Day 35 at 1220 UT
= 4 Feb at 1220 UT
ETA = 4 Feb at 1220 UT
New York = -5H00
ETA = 4 Feb at 0720 ST
2. Calculate the ETA in Cape Town (South Africa) for a vessel which left a Sea
Position of 40 01’N 072 35’W on 22nd February 2000 at 1318 Local and
travelled for a distance of 6483 M at a speed of 14.5 Knots.

Year 2000 ÷ 4 = 500 – Whole number therefore a Leap Year

LiT = 72 35’W ÷ 15 = Zone +5

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 Departure Time = 1318 + 5 = 22 Feb at 1818 UT

Time on Passage = 6483 ÷ 14.5 = 447 Hours 6 Mins

 447 ÷ 24 = 18 Days
 447 – (24 x 18) = 15 Hours
 18 Days 15 Hours 6 Mins

Alternatively: Day 53 at 1818 UT

18 D 15H 6M
ETA Day 71 at 3324 UT
Day 72 at 0924 UT
ETA = 12 Mar at 0924 UT

ETA = 12 Mar 0924 UT

ST = +200
ETA = 12 Mar 1124 ST

3. Calculate the average speed of a vessel which departed Bordeaux (France)

at 1600 Standard Time on the 7 Nov 2000 and arrived at a sea position of
34 55’S 056 13’W on 22 Nov 2000 at 2348 Zone Time after travelling
5895M.

2000 ÷ 4 = 500 (Leap Year).

LiT = 56 13’ ÷ 15 = +4Hrs

Therefore 2348ZT +4 = 0348UT on 23 Nov

Dep Time = 11 Jul at 1600ST = 7 Nov at 1500UT

Arr Time = 23 Nov at 0348UT
Passage Time = 15 Days 12H 48mins = (15 x 24) + 12.8
= 372.8Hrs

Av Speed = Dist ÷ Time = 5895 ÷ 372.8 = 15.8 Knots

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Exercises

1. Calculate the ETA in Adelaide (South Australia) if a ship left a Sea Position
of 33 56’N 018 13’E at 0306 Local on 7 March 1999. The ship is to travel
for a distance of 5665 M at 15.8 Knots.

2. Calculate the ETA in Yokohama (Japan) if a ship left a Sea Position of 36
27’S 138 46’E at 1148 Local on the 1st April 1997. The ship is to travel for a
distance of 5319 M at 13.4 Knots.

3. Calculate the ETA in Balboa (Panama) if a ship left a Sea Position of 35
12’N 139 37’E at 0742 Local on the 17th May 1998. The ship is to travel for
a distance of 7690 M at 13.1 Knots.

4. Calculate the ETA in Wellington (New Zealand) if a ship left a Sea Position
of 08 58’N 079 34’W at 1854 Local on the 16th June 1999. The ship is to
travel for a distance of 6495 M at 15.1 Knots.

5. Calculate the ETA in Puerto Eden, Chile (South America) if a ship left a Sea
Position of 41 37’S 175 17’E at 1354 Local on the 19th July 2000. The ship
is to travel for a distance of 4607 M at 16.3 Knots

6. Calculate the ETA in Walvis bay (Namibia) if a ship left a Sea Position of 55
59’S 067 16’E at 0212 Local on the 1st August 1999. The ship is to travel for
a distance of 4215 M at 17.9 Knots.

7. Calculate the ETA in Hampton Roads, Virginia (USA) if a ship left a Sea
Position of 22 57’S 014 30’E at 1636 Local on the 14th September 1998.
The ship is to travel for a distance of 6190 M at 14.2 Knots.

8. Calculate the ETA in Bordeaux (France) if a ship left a Sea Position of 37
05’N 076 15’W at 1424 Local on the 4th October 2004. The ship is to travel
for a distance of 3240 M at 16.1 Knots.

9. Calculate the average speed of a vessel which departed Montevideo

(Uraguay) at 0800 Standard Time on the 25 Dec 1996 and arrived at a sea
position of 33 02’S 071 39’W at 0348 Zone Time on 2 Jan 1997. The
distance travelled was 2940M.

10. Calculate the average speed of a vessel which departed Honolulu (Hawaii,
USA) at 1142 Standard Time on 23 Feb 2000 and arrived at a sea position of
33 55’S 151 12’E at 2312 Zone Time on 6 Mar 2000. The vessel travelled a
distance of 4430 M.

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Answers

1. 22nd Mar 1999 at 1009

2. 18th April 1997 at 0044

3. 10th Jun 1998 at 0443

4. 5th July 1999 at 1002

5. 30th July 2000 at 1632

6. 11th Aug 1999 at 0240

7. 2nd Oct 1998 at 1531

8. 13th Oct 2004 at 0539

9. 15.5 Knots

10. 15.9 Knots

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