Schweigert FrontMatter.

fm Page i Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

RESEARCH METHODS
IN PSYCHOLOGY
A Handbook

Third Edition

Wendy A. Schweigert
Bradley University

WAVELAND

PRESS, INC.
Long Grove, Illinois
Schweigert [Link] Page v Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

Contents

Preface xi

1 Introduction to the Scientific Method 1

Ways of Knowing 3
Intuition and Superstition 4
Authority 4
Rational-Inductive Argument 5
The Scientific Method 6
The Objectives of Science and the Scientific Method 11
Description as a Research Objective 11
Explanation and Prediction as Research Objectives 12
Control as a Research Objective 12
A Word about Theories 13
Research Criticism 15
Summary 16
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 17 ■ EXERCISES 17
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 19

2 Ethics in Research 21
Ethical Treatment of Research Participants 21
Internet Research Ethics 31
Ethical Dilemmas 33
Ethical Treatment of Animal Participants 35
Ethics and the Reporting of Research Results 37
Ethics and the Sponsorship of Research 39
Summary 40
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 40 ■ EXERCISES 41
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 42

v
Schweigert [Link] Page vi Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

vi Contents

3 The Research Process 45

Reliability and Validity 47
Internal Validity and Confounds 47
External Validity 48
Hypotheses 50
Hypothesis Testing 52
Errors in Hypothesis Testing 53
The Probability of a Type I Error 55
The Probability of a Type II Error 56
Why We Don’t Accept the Null Hypothesis 57
How to Do Science 59
Summary 62
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 63 ■ EXERCISES 63
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 64

4 Research Reports and Literature Searches 67

Research Reports 68
The Review Process 69
The Organization of Research Reports 70
How to Find Research Reports: The Literature Search 70
Using the Internet for Literature Searches 71
An Internet Search Example 72
A Citation 73
Other Sources of Potentially Useful Citations 74
Citing the References 75
Citing References in Text 75
The Reference List 76
Summary 77
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 78 EXERCISES 78
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 78

5 The Role of Statistics in Research 79

Scales of Measurement 80
Nominal Scale 81
Ordinal Scale 81
Interval Scale 82
Ratio Scale 82
Importance of Scales of Measurement 83
Schweigert [Link] Page vii Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

Contents vii

Types of Statistical Techniques 84

Describing the Data 84
Measures of Relationships 88
Comparing Groups 91
Summary 93
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 94 ■ EXERCISES 95
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 95

6 Introduction to Experimentation 97
and the Between-Groups Design
Experiments versus Correlational Studies 97
Equivalent Groups 99
Control over Extraneous Variables 103
Internal Validity and Confounds 104
Experimenter Bias and Demand Characteristics 105
Instrumentation Effects 106
Subject Attrition 106
Comparable Treatment of Groups 107
Sensitivity of the Dependent Variable 108
Summary 110
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 110 ■ EXERCISES 111
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 111

7 The Within-Subjects Design 115

Types of Within-Subjects Designs 116
Benefits of the Within-Subjects Design 117
Disadvantages of the Within-Subjects Design 119
Order Effects and Counterbalancing 122
Complete Within-Subjects Design 122
Incomplete Within-Subjects Design 125
Summary 128
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 129 ■ EXERCISES 129
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 130

8 Quasi-Experimental Designs 133

Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs 134
Nonequivalent-Control-Group Designs 135
Time-Series Designs 136
Schweigert [Link] Page viii Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

viii Contents

Threats to Internal Validity

of Quasi-Experimental Designs 139
Summary 141
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 142 ■ EXERCISES 143
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 144

9 Factorial Designs and Correlational Studies 147

Using a Factorial Design 150
Interpreting Main Effects 152
Graphing the Cell Means 154
Other Types of Two-Factor Designs 156
Other Higher-Order Designs and Their Interactions 158
Correlational Studies 160
Summary 161
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 163 ■ EXERCISES 163
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 165

10 Using Natural Settings: 169

Observational Studies and Field Experiments
Observational Research Designs 169
Uses of Observational Studies 170
Two Types of Observational Research Designs 170
Naturalistic Observation 170
Participant Observation 172
Field Experiments 174
Problems and Pitfalls of Observational Studies 174
Influence of the Observer on Behavior 175
Expectancy Effects 176
Biases Resulting from the Use of Nonhuman Observers 176
Choosing the Type of Observational Design 177
Data Collection 178
Reliability 178
Techniques for Data Collection 179
Narrative Records 179
Checklists 180
Types of Data Collected 182
Schweigert [Link] Page ix Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

Contents ix

Sampling Techniques 183

Behavior Sampling 183
Situation Sampling 184
Summary 184
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 185 ■ EXERCISES 185
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 186

11 Surveys and Interviews 189

Surveys: How and Why To Use Them 190
Written Surveys 191
Interviews 196
Survey Construction 200
Layout of Questions 200
Wording of Questions and Response Options 201
Measurement Tools 207
Survey Development 209
Sampling Techniques 209
Summary 212
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 213 ■ EXERCISES 214
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTIONS AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 215

12 Single-Subject Designs 217

Types of Single-Subject Designs 220
Baseline Measures 220
Single-Subject Time-Series Designs 223
Reversal Design 224
Alternating-Treatments Design 226
Multiple-Baselines Design 227
Changing-Criterion Design 228
Threats to the Internal Validity of
Single-Subject Designs 230
Summary 231
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 232 ■ EXERCISES 232
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTION AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 233
Schweigert [Link] Page x Wednesday, July 27, 2011 1:33 PM

x Contents

13 Physical Trace and Archival Data Studies: 237

Two Nonreactive Measurement Techniques
Physical Traces 238
Traces 238
Products 239
Concerns with Physical Trace Studies 239
Ethical Considerations 240
Archival Data Investigations 241
Concerns with Archival Data Studies 242
Ethical Considerations 244
Summary 245
■ IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS 246 ■ EXERCISES 246
■ ANSWERS TO CONCEPT QUESTION AND
ODD-NUMBERED EXERCISES 247
Appendix A: Basic Statistical Techniques 249
Appendix B: Statistical Tables 284
Appendix C: APA Publication Style 298

Glossary 315
Bibliography 337
Index 345