PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

MATERIALS

PHYSICAL CHEMICAL MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL

PROPERTIES PROPERTIES PROPERTIES PROPERTIES

THERMAL MAGNETIC OPTICAL

PROPERTIES PROPERTIES PROPERTIES
Physical Properties
Those distinguishing qualities or characteristics that are used to describe a substance in the
absence of external forces are referred to as physical properties. A description of the physical
behavior of aLUSTER
material would include such characteristics as specific heat, thermal conductivity,
coefficient of expansion, color, refractive index, density,LENGTH
and electrical resistivity. In engineering
science, the physical properties of a material are critical factors that help determine how a
COLOR
material behaves under various conditions. Understanding these properties allows engineers to
DENSITY
select the right materials for specific applications and ensure safety, efficiency, and performance
in products and structures
MASS
LUSTER
Luster – measure of the
interaction between light and an
COLOR object’s surface
Color – wavelengths of light
reflected
by matter
Length – longest dimension of an
LENGTH object
Density – amount of matter per
unit of volume

DENSITY Mass – amount of matter in an

object

MASS
 Chemical Properties
The characteristics of a material that
relate to its behavior in chemical
reactions are called the chemical
properties. The engineer, in a great many
CHEMICAL
instances, is concerned with the chemical
PROPERTIES
properties of material particularly in
connection with corrosion, alloying,
compound formation, and so forty. While
there properties are of importance in
many engineering application.
Oxidation Resistance: The Solubility: The extent to
ability to resist chemical which a material can
reaction with oxygen, dissolve in a solvent,
which is crucial for affecting applications in
materials exposed to air at chemical processes.
high temperatures. Acid/Base Reactivity: How a
material reacts when exposed
to acidic or basic
environments, important for
materials in harsh chemical
conditions.
 Electronegativity: A measure of Passivation: The formation
∙ Corrosion: the process of the tendency of an atom to of a protective oxide layer
corroding metal, stone, or attract a bonding pair of on the surface of a
other materials electrons, affecting chemical material, preventing
bonding. further corrosion.
Mechanical Properties
Those properties which describe the behavior of materials under the
application of force are called mechanical properties. Such characteristics
as strength, hardness, machinability, ductility, elasticity, and plasticity are MECHANICAL
included within this designation. These properties are of great interest to PROPERTIES
the engineer who is called upon to select materials for machines and
struc- tures and to determine the sizes of various members so that they
will support loads adequately.

CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND MECHANICAL

STRAIN BEHAVIOR-METALS

MECHANICAL MECHANICAL
BEHAVIOR-CERAMICS BEHAVIOR-POLYERS
 If a load is static or changes
relatively slowly with time
and is applied uniformly over
CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND
a cross section or surface of a
STRAIN
member, the mechanical
behavior may be ascertained
by a simple stress–strain test
 CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND
STRAIN

STRAIN STRESS

When a material is placed in a state of strain

resulting from the application of an external
load, the atoms making up the structure of the
Strain is a deformation caused by the material are displaced somewhat from their
application of an external force. When the equilibrium positions. If atoms are made to
material is said to be under a strain, the come closer than they should be or are moved
material has undergone some deformation as further apart than their structure will normally
the result of the application of an external allow, internal forces are established which
force. tend to restore the atoms to their original
positions. These internally distributed forces
which tend to resist deformation may be
defined qualitatively as stress.
CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND
STRAIN

ELASTICITY

The property of regaining the

original shape upon the removal
of the external load is known as
elasticity. Within known limits,
all the material of construction
are elastic, although the range
of elasticity varies greatly for
different materials. In some
materials such as stone, the
possible elastic deformation
may be very small.
 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF
METALS

Yielding and Yield Strength Tensile Strength Ductility

Most structures are designed to

ensure that only elastic
deformation will result when a Ductility is another important
stress is applied. A structure or Tensile strength is a key mechanical property. It is a
component that has plastically mechanical property that measure of the degree of
deformed—or experi represents the maximum plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.A metal that
enced a permanent change in amount of tensile (pulling or
experiences very
shape—may not be capable of stretching) stress a material can little or no plastic deformation
functioning as intended. It withstand before failure. It upon fracture is termed brittle. The
is therefore desirable to know indicates the material's ability to tensile stress
the stress level at which plastic resist breaking under tension. strain behaviors for both ductile
deformation begins, or where and brittle metals
the phenomenon of yielding
occurs.
 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF
CERAMICS

FLEXURAL STRENGTH ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

Elastic behavior refers to a

material's ability to return to its
Flexural strength, also known as
original shape and size after the
bending strength or modulus of
applied load (or stress) is
rupture, is the ability of a
removed. In the elastic region,
material to resist deformation
the material deforms but fully
under load in bending. It
recovers when the force is no
represents the maximum stress
longer present, meaning there is
experienced by a material
no permanent deformation. The
before it yields in a bending
relationship between the
test. Flexural strength is crucial
applied stress and the resulting
in materials that undergo
strain is linear for materials
bending, such as beams, slabs,
exhibiting elastic behavior,
and structural components.
which is described by Hooke's
Law.
 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF
POLYMERS

MACROSCOPIC DEFORMATION VISCOELASTIC DEFORMATION

Macroscopic deformation in polymers

refers to the large-scale changes in shape
or size that polymers undergo when Characteristics of both elastic and viscous
subjected to external forces, such as behavior. Polymers with viscoelastic
tension, compression, or shear. Polymers properties deform partially like an elastic
exhibit a wide range of deformation solid (recoverable deformation) and
behaviors due to their unique molecular partially like a viscous fluid (permanent or
structures, which consist of long, time-dependent deformation). This
chain-like molecules. These behaviors behavior is a result of the complex
include elastic deformation, plastic molecular structure of polymers, which
deformation, and viscoelastic behavior, consists of long chains that can stretch,
depending on the type of polymer, the slide, and reorient under stress.
applied stress, and the environmental
conditions like temperature.
 CONCEPTS OF STRESS AND
STRAIN

SHEAR AND TORSIONAL

TENSIONS TEST COMPRESSION TEST
TEST

Torsion testing is a crucial

One of the most common component of engineering analysis
mechanical stress-strain tests is that involves applying a torque or
Compression stress–strain tests twisting force to an object, causing
performed in tension. As will be
may be conducted if in-service it to rotate around its longitudinal
seen, the tension test can be
forces are of this type. A axis and induce shear stress over its
used to ascertain several
compression test is conducted cross-section. Shear tests are used
mechanical properties of
in a manner similar to the to measure the shear strength of a
materials that are important in material. They provide insights into
tensile test, except that the
design. A specimen is deformed, a material's resistance to
force is compressive and the
usually to fracture, with a deformation when exposed to a
specimen contracts along the
gradually increasing tensile load force. Shear stress occurs when two
direction of the stress.
that is applied uniaxially along parts of a surface or two different
the long axis of a specimen. surfaces slide past each other when
force is applied.
Electrical Properties
Those properties which describe the behavior of materials under the
influence of an electric field or current are called electrical properties.
Such characteristics as conductivity, resistivity, dielectric strength,
ELECTRICAL
permittivity, and capacitance are included within this designation. These PROPERTIES
properties are of great interest to the engineer who is called upon to
select materials for electrical components, circuits, and systems, ensuring
they perform efficiently under various conditions of voltage and current.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION SEMICONDUCTIVITY

 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION SEMICONDUCTIVITY

• OHM’S LAW • INTRINSIC

• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY SEMICONDUCTION
• ELECTRONIC AND IONIC • EXTRINSIC
CONDUCTION SEMICONDUCTION
 • OHM’S LAW
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
• ELECTRONIC AND IONIC
CONDUCTION

OHM’S LAW

One of the most important electrical

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
characteristics of a solid material is
the ease with which it transmits an
electrical conductivity is used to specify the electrical character of
electric current. Ohm’s law relates
a material. It is simply the reciprocal of the resistivity, and is
the current I—or time rate of charge
indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of
passage—to the applied voltage V as
conducting an electric current. The units for are reciprocal
follows where R is the resistance of
ohm-meters.
the material through which the
current is passing.
V = IR
 • OHM’S LAW
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
• ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
• ELECTRONIC AND IONIC
CONDUCTION

ELECTRONIC AND IONIC CONDUCTION

An electric current results from the motion of electrically charged particles in

response to forces that act on them from an externally applied electric field.
Positively charged particles are accelerated in the field direction, and
negatively charged particles in the direction opposite. Within most solid
materials a current arises from the flow of electrons, which is termed
electronic conduction. In addition, for ionic materials a net motion of charged
ions is possible that produces a current; this is termed ionic conduction.
 SEMICONDUCTIVITY

SEMICONDUCTIVITY
The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is not as high as that of metals;never theless,they have some
unique electrical characteristics that render them especially useful. The electrical properties of these materials are
extremely sensitive to the presence of even minute concentrations of [Link] semiconductorsare those in
which the electri cal behavior is based on the electronic structure inherent in the pure [Link] the elec trical
characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms,the semiconductor is said to be extrinsic.

• INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTION
• EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTION
 SEMICONDUCTIVITY
The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is not as high as that of metals;never
theless,they have some unique electrical characteristics that render them especially useful. The
SEMICONDUCTIVITY
electrical properties of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of even minute • INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION
concentrations of [Link] semiconductorsare those in which the electri cal behavior is
based on the electronic structure inherent in the pure [Link] the elec trical characteristics
are dictated by impurity atoms,the semiconductor is said to be extrinsic.
• EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION

An intrinsic semiconductor is a
pure semiconductor material. It is
made from a single element or
compound with no added impurities
or atoms. Examples of intrinsic
semiconductors include silicon (Si)
and germanium (Ge).
 SEMICONDUCTIVITY
The electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials is not as high as that of metals;never
theless,they have some unique electrical characteristics that render them especially useful. The
SEMICONDUCTIVITY
electrical properties of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of even minute • INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION
concentrations of [Link] semiconductorsare those in which the electri cal behavior is
based on the electronic structure inherent in the pure [Link] the elec trical characteristics
are dictated by impurity atoms,the semiconductor is said to be extrinsic.
• EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION

Extrinsic semiconductors are

semiconductors that are doped
with specific impurities. The
impurity modifies the electrical
properties of the semiconductor
and makes it more suitable for
electronic devices such as diodes
and transistors.
Thermal Properties
Those properties which describe the behavior of materials under the
influence of heat or temperature changes are called thermal properties.
Such characteristics as thermal conductivity, specific heat, thermal THERMAL
expansion, and thermal diffusivity are included within this designation. PROPERTIES
These properties are of great interest to the engineer who is tasked with
selecting materials for applications where heat transfer, temperature
resistance, and thermal stability are critical, ensuring that structures or
components perform reliably under varying thermal conditions.

THERMAL
HEAT CAPACITY
EXPANSION

THERMAL THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY STRESSES
 A solid material, when heated, experiences an increase in
temperature, signifying that some energy has been absorbed.
Heat capacity indicates a material’s ability to absorb heat from
the external surroundings; it represents the amount of energy
required to pro duce a unit temperature rise. In mathematical
terms, the heat capacity Cis expressed as follows:

where dQ is the energy required to produce a dT temperature

change. Typically, heat capacity is specified per mole of material
(e.g., J/mol, or cal/molK). Specific heat(often denoted by a
HEAT CAPACITY lowercase c) is sometimes used; this represents the heat
capacity per unit mass and has various units (J/kg, cal/gK,
Btu/lbm F).

There are two ways in which this property may be measured,

according to the environmental conditions accompanying the
transfer of heat. One is the heat capacity while maintaining the
specimen volume constant, Cy; the other is for constant external
pressure, which is denoted Cp. The magnitude of Cp is always
greater than or equal to Cy; however, any difference is very slight
for most solid materials at room temperature and below
 Thermal expansion is the property of a material
THERMAL that describes its tendency to change in shape,
EXPANSION area, or volume in response to temperature
changes. As materials are heated, their particles
vibrate more vigorously, causing them to occupy
more space, which results in an expansion of the
material. The extent of expansion depends on
the material's coefficient of thermal expansion,
which varies for different substances. This
property is crucial for engineers and designers in
fields such as construction, manufacturing, and
electronics, where temperature changes could
lead to structural stresses, gaps, or
malfunctions if not accounted for properly.
 Thermal conductivity is the property of a
THERMAL material that measures its ability to conduct
CONDUCTIVITY heat. It indicates how efficiently heat energy
can pass through a material due to a
temperature gradient. Materials with high
thermal conductivity, such as metals, transfer
heat quickly, while materials with low thermal
conductivity, such as insulators like wood or
plastic, resist heat flow. This property is
important in applications like heat exchangers,
insulation, and electronics cooling, where
efficient heat transfer or heat resistance is
critical to maintaining performance and safety.
 Thermal stresses are internal stresses that develop in
a material due to changes in temperature. When a
material is heated or cooled unevenly, different parts
of the material expand or contract at different rates,
creating stress. If a material is constrained from
expanding or contracting freely, the resulting forces
THERMAL
generate thermal stress. These stresses can lead to
STRESSES
warping, cracking, or even failure of the material if not
properly accounted for. Thermal stresses are a critical
consideration in engineering fields like aerospace,
construction, and electronics, where temperature
fluctuations are common. Engineers must design
structures and components to accommodate or reduce
thermal stress to prevent damage or malfunctions.
Magnetics Properties
Magnetic properties describe how materials respond to the presence
of a magnetic field. Key characteristics include magnetization,
permeability, coercivity, and magnetic susceptibility. Materials can be
classified as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, diamagnetic, or
MAGNETIC
antiferromagnetic based on their interaction with magnetic fields.
PROPERTIES
Ferromagnetic materials, like iron and cobalt, exhibit strong magnetic
behavior and can be magnetized permanently, while paramagnetic and
diamagnetic materials show weaker or repellent responses to magnetic
fields. These properties are essential in applications such as transformers,
motors, magnetic storage devices, and electromagnetic shielding, where
controlling magnetic behavior is critical for efficient operation and
performance.

DIAMAGNETISM AND
BASIC CONCEPT
PARAMAGNETISM

ANTIFERROMAGNETISM
FERROMAGNETISM
AND FERRIMAGNETISM
 BASIC CONCEPT

Magnetic Dipoles Magnetic forces are generated

by moving electrically charged particles; these
magnetic forces are in addition to any
electrostatic forces that may exist. Often it is
convenient to think of magnetic forces in terms
of fields. Imaginary lines of force may be drawn
to indicate the direction of the force at positions
in the vicinity of the field source. The magnetic
field distributions as indicated by lines of force
are shown for a current loop and a bar magnet
 DIAMAGNETISM

Diamagnetism is a type of magnetism where

materials create an opposing magnetic field
when exposed to an external magnetic field.
This effect arises because the orbital motion of
electrons in atoms generates tiny magnetic
moments, which align in a way that opposes the
external field. Diamagnetic materials, such as
copper, gold, and water, do not retain any
magnetism once the external magnetic field is
removed. These materials are weakly repelled by
both poles of a magnet and generally have a
negative magnetic susceptibility.
 DIAMAGNETISM

Paramagnetism occurs in materials that have

unpaired electrons, which create small magnetic
moments that tend to align with an external
magnetic field. Unlike diamagnetic materials,
paramagnetic substances, such as aluminum,
platinum, and magnesium, are weakly attracted
to a magnetic field. However, this magnetization
is temporary, disappearing once the external
field is removed. Paramagnetic materials have a
positive magnetic susceptibility, but the effect is
much weaker compared to ferromagnetic
materials like iron.
 FERROMAGNETISM

Ferromagnetism is a phenomenon where certain materials,

such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, exhibit strong, permanent
magnetic properties. In ferromagnetic materials, the
magnetic moments of atoms align parallel to each other in
regions called magnetic domains. When an external
magnetic field is applied, these domains align in the same
direction, resulting in a strong, collective magnetic effect.
Even when the external field is removed, ferromagnetic
materials can retain this alignment, creating a permanent
magnet. Ferromagnetism is central to many practical
applications, including electric motors, transformers,
magnetic storage media, and permanent magnets. The ability
of these materials to maintain magnetization makes them
essential in industries where strong and lasting magnetic
fields are required.
 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM

Antiferromagnetism is a type of magnetism in which the magnetic

moments of adjacent atoms or ions align in opposite directions,
canceling each other out. As a result, antiferromagnetic materials
exhibit no net macroscopic magnetization in the absence of an external
magnetic field. Common antiferromagnetic materials include manganese
oxide (MnO) and chromium.
At low temperatures, these materials exhibit this oppositely aligned
magnetic order, but above a certain temperature known as the Néel
temperature, thermal energy disrupts this alignment, and the material
transitions into a paramagnetic state. Antiferromagnetic materials are of
interest in advanced applications like spintronics, where electron spin
properties are leveraged for data processing.
 FERRIMAGNETISM

Ferrimagnetism occurs in materials where the magnetic moments of

atoms or ions are aligned in opposite directions, similar to
antiferromagnetism, but the magnitudes of the opposing moments are
unequal. This imbalance results in a net magnetization. Ferrimagnetic
materials, such as magnetite (Fe₃O₄), are typically oxides or ferrites,
composed of iron or similar metals. Like ferromagnetic materials,
ferrimagnetic materials exhibit permanent magnetism and are used in
many practical applications, particularly in transformers, magnetic
recording media, and inductors. They also have a Curie temperature,
above which their magnetic properties diminish, transitioning into a
paramagnetic state. Ferrimagnets combine aspects of both
antiferromagnetic and ferromagnetic behaviors but retain a net
magnetic moment due to the unequal distribution of opposing spins.
Optical Properties
Optical property refers to a material’s response to exposure to
electromagnetic radiation and, in particular, to visible light. OPTICAL
PROPERTIES
LIGHTS
ELECTROMAGNETISM INTERACTIONS WITH
SOLID

ATOMIC AND
ELECTRONIC REFRACTION
INTERACTIONS

RELFECTION OBSORPTION
 In the classical sense, electromagnetic radiation is
considered to be wave like, consisting of electric and
magnetic field components that are perpendicular to
each other and also to the direction of propagation
ELECTROMAGNETISM (Figure 19.1). Light, heat (or radiant energy), radar,
radio waves, and x-rays are all forms of
electromagnetic radiation.
 When light proceeds from one medium into another
(e.g., from air into a solid substance), several things
LIGHTS
happen. Some of the light radiation may be
INTERACTIONS WITH
transmitted through the medium, some will be
SOLID
absorbed, and some will be reflected at the interface
between the two media.
 The optical phenomena that occur
within solid materials involve
interactions between the
LIGHTS INTERACTIONS electromagnetic radiation and atoms,
WITH SOLID ions, and/or electrons. Two of the most
important of these interactions are
electronic polarization and electron
energy transitions.
Electronic Polarization

Electronic polarization refers to the displacement of the center of the

positive and negative charges within an atom or molecule in response to an
applied electric field. This phenomenon occurs in materials when an external
electric field causes a shift in the electron cloud relative to the nucleus,
resulting in a separation of positive and negative charges.

Electronic Transitions

Electron Transitions refer to the process by which an electron in an atom

or molecule moves from one energy level or state to another. These
transitions are fundamental to understanding various physical and
chemical phenomena, including absorption, emission of light, and
chemical reactions.
 Optical Properties of
Metals The optical properties of metals describe how metals
interact with light, which gives them their characteristic
appearance and behavior. These properties are influenced
by the free electrons in the metal and their interactions with
electromagnetic radiation.

1. Reflectivity
2. Absorption
High Reflectance: Metals are highly
Absorption of Light: Metals also absorb light
reflective because of their
strongly in specific wavelength ranges. When
abundance of free electrons. When
light penetrates the metal, free electrons
light strikes the surface of a metal,
absorb the energy, converting it into heat,
these free electrons oscillate in
which is why metals often heat up quickly
response to the electromagnetic
when exposed to [Link] Depth: Due to
field of the light, reflecting most of
their strong absorption, light penetrates only
the incident light.
a very short distance into the metal before
Metallic Luster: This property gives
being absorbed. This depth is known as the
metals their shiny appearance.
skin depth and is typically very small for
Metals like silver and aluminum can
metals.
reflect up to 90-95% of visible light.
 Optical Properties of
Metals The optical properties of metals describe how metals
interact with light, which gives them their characteristic
appearance and behavior. These properties are influenced
by the free electrons in the metal and their interactions with
electromagnetic radiation.

1. Reflectivity
2. Absorption
High Reflectance: Metals are highly
Absorption of Light: Metals also absorb light
reflective because of their
strongly in specific wavelength ranges. When
abundance of free electrons. When
light penetrates the metal, free electrons
light strikes the surface of a metal,
absorb the energy, converting it into heat,
these free electrons oscillate in
which is why metals often heat up quickly
response to the electromagnetic
when exposed to [Link] Depth: Due to
field of the light, reflecting most of
their strong absorption, light penetrates only
the incident light.
a very short distance into the metal before
Metallic Luster: This property gives
being absorbed. This depth is known as the
metals their shiny appearance.
skin depth and is typically very small for
Metals like silver and aluminum can
metals.
reflect up to 90-95% of visible light.
Optical Properties of
Metals The optical properties of metals describe how metals
interact with light, which gives them their characteristic
appearance and behavior. These properties are influenced
by the free electrons in the metal and their interactions with
electromagnetic radiation.

3. Transmission
Opaque: Metals are generally opaque to visible light. Because light is either
reflected or absorbed, metals do not allow light to pass through them. This is
why metals appear solid and non-transparent.
 Optical Properties of
Non-Metals Optical properties of non-metals describe how non-metallic
materials interact with light. Unlike metals, non-metals lack
free electrons, which leads to different optical behaviors
such as transparency, refraction, and absorption.
Non-metals can be transparent, translucent, or opaque,
depending on their structure and chemical composition.

1. Transparency and Transmission

Transparent Materials: Many non-metals, such as glass, quartz, and certain plastics,
are transparent to visible light. This is due to their electronic structure, which
allows light to pass through with minimal absorption.

Translucent Materials: Some non-metals, like frosted glass or wax, allow light to
pass through but scatter it, causing translucency. Light transmission occurs, but
objects on the other side are not clearly visible.

Opaque Materials: Certain non-metals, like wood and carbon (graphite), are opaque
because they absorb or reflect most of the light, preventing transmission.