The Chemical Context of Life 1. Protons: Positive charge.

Key Concepts to Know: 2. Neutrons: Neutral charge.

1. Subatomic Particles and their 3. Electrons: Negative charge.

significance.
Isotopes:
2. Types of Chemical Bonds and
● Variants of an element that have
how they are formed.
the same number of protons but
Matter different numbers of neutrons.

● Definition: Has mass, takes up ● Can be stable or radioactive.

space, and is affected by gravity.
● Radioactive Isotopes are used
● Composition: Consists of in medical diagnosis and as tracers
elements and compounds. but can cause harm if exposure is
uncontrolled.
Energy
Valence Electrons
● Definition: Moves matter and has
the ability to do work. ● These are the electrons in the
outermost shell of an atom.
● Forms: Potential, kinetic energy;
also includes conversions like ● Valence Electrons determine the
sound, light, and heat. chemical behavior of an atom.

Elements and Compounds ● The outermost electron shell is

called the Valence Shell.
Element:
Chemical Bonds
● A "pure" substance that cannot be
broken down by ordinary means. 1. Covalent Bonds:

● Example: Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen ○ Strongest bond type.

(N).
○ Formed by sharing
Compound: electrons.

● Made from two or more different ○ Can be polar (unequal

elements combined in a fixed ratio. sharing) or nonpolar
(equal sharing).
● Example: H₂O (Water), CO₂
(Carbon Dioxide). 2. Ionic Bonds:

Elements of Life ○ Strong bonds (especially

when dry).
● 25 essential elements.
○ Formed between "givers"
● 96% of living matter consists of and "takers" of electrons.
Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen
(H), and Nitrogen (N). ○ Affected by the environment
(e.g., water weakens ionic
● 4% includes Phosphorus (P), bonds).
Sulfur (S), Calcium (Ca), Potassium
(K), and trace elements like Iron 3. Hydrogen Bonds:
(Fe) and Iodine (I).
○ Weak bonds.
Atomic Structure
○ Formed between a
● The smallest unit of matter that hydrogen atom and an
retains the properties of an electronegative atom.
element is called an Atom.
4. Van der Waals Interactions:
Subatomic Particles:
○ Weakest bonds.
 ○ Brief attractions between ■ Example: Water
atoms and molecules that (H₂O), where the
are close together. oxygen atom has a
slight negative
Molecular Shape and Function charge, and the
● Molecular Shape: Critical for the hydrogen atoms have
biological function, as it slight positive
determines how molecules interact charges.
and recognize one another. ○ Nonpolar Substance: A
● Molecules often bind temporarily molecule in which electrons
by forming weak bonds, but only if are shared evenly, so there
their shapes are complementary. is no charge difference
across the molecule.
● Example: Opiates have shapes
similar to endorphins and can ■ Example: Methane
bind to endorphin receptors, (CH₄), where carbon
mimicking their effects. and hydrogen share
electrons equally.
Chemical Reactions
3. Types of Molecules that Form
● Definition: The making and Hydrogen Bonds:
breaking of chemical bonds.
○ Molecules that have a
● Law of Conservation: Matter is hydrogen atom covalently
conserved in a chemical reaction. bonded to a highly
electronegative atom, such
Chemical Equilibrium: as oxygen (O), nitrogen
(N), or fluorine (F), can
● This is the point where the forward
form hydrogen bonds.
and reverse reactions offset each
other exactly. ■ Explanation: These
electronegative
● Even at equilibrium, reactions are
atoms pull electron
still occurring, but there is no net
density towards
change in the concentrations of
themselves, creating
reactants or products.
a partial positive
Review Questions: charge on the
hydrogen atom. This
1. Trace Mineral Found in Living hydrogen atom can
Organisms and its Purpose: then interact with the
partial negative
○ Iron (Fe): Iron is a trace
charge of another
mineral essential for oxygen
electronegative atom
transport in the blood. It is
(like O, N, or F) in a
a key component of
different molecule,
hemoglobin, the molecule
forming a hydrogen
that carries oxygen in red
bond. For example,
blood cells.
water molecules form
2. Difference Between a Polar hydrogen bonds with
and Nonpolar Substance with each other due to the
Examples: attraction between
the hydrogen of one
○ Polar Substance: A molecule and the
molecule in which electrons oxygen of another.
are shared unevenly,
leading to a slight electrical
charge difference across the
molecule. Water and Life
Key Concepts to Know:
 1. The importance of hydrogen ○ Evaporative cooling:
bonding to the properties of Water’s high heat of
water. vaporization (580 cal/g)
allows it to cool surfaces as
2. The four unique properties of it evaporates.
water and how each contributes to
life on Earth. 3. Expansion Upon Freezing:

3. How to interpret the pH scale. ○ Ice is less dense than liquid

water, allowing it to float,
4. How changes in pH can alter providing insulation for
biological systems. aquatic life in cold climates.
5. The importance of buffers in ○ This unique property creates
biological systems. a habitat for species like
Water as a Polar Molecule polar bears and preserves
ecosystems below the ice.
● Polarity: Water is a polar
molecule because of the unequal 4. Water as the Solvent of Life:
sharing of electrons between ○ Water’s polarity makes it a
oxygen and hydrogen. versatile solvent, capable of
● Hydrogen Bonding: Slightly dissolving many substances.
negative oxygen is attracted to ○ It forms aqueous
slightly positive hydrogen from solutions and interacts
another water molecule. with polar molecules like
● Water can form up to four proteins.
hydrogen bonds. Water Chemistry: Acids, Bases, and
Four Emergent Properties of Water pH

1. Cohesion: ● Acid: Increases the H⁺

concentration in a solution.
○ Hydrogen bonding between
like molecules (water ● Base: Reduces the H⁺
molecules sticking concentration.
together). ● Most biological fluids have a pH
○ Allows for water transport between 6 and 8.
in plants and dissolved pH Scale:
nutrients to move against
gravity. ● Measures the relative
concentration of hydrogen ions
○ Surface tension: A (H⁺).
measure of how difficult it is
to break or stretch the ● Acidic solutions have a low pH
surface of a liquid, related (pH < 7).
to cohesion.
● Basic solutions have a high pH
2. Moderation of Temperature: (pH > 7).

○ Water acts as a heat bank, Buffers:

absorbing or releasing large
amounts of heat with little ● Substances that minimize changes
change in its own in H⁺ and OH⁻ concentrations in a
temperature. solution.

○ Specific heat: Water has a ● Consist of an acid-base pair that

high specific heat (1 reversibly combines with hydrogen
cal/g°C), which allows it to ions.
minimize temperature ● Example: The carbonic
fluctuations and support life. acid-bicarbonate system in
 blood helps maintain a stable pH 1. The properties of carbon that
(~7.4). Deviations from this range make it essential to life.
can be fatal.
Organic Chemistry
Acid Threat:
● Organic Chemistry: The branch
● Acid Precipitation: Rain, snow, of chemistry that studies carbon
or fog with a pH lower than 5.6, compounds.
caused by pollution mixing with
water in the atmosphere. ● Organic Compounds: These
compounds contain carbon,
● Ocean Acidification: Increased typically bonded with hydrogen
CO₂ in seawater forms carbonic (H).
acid, lowering the pH of the
oceans, affecting marine life. ● Major Elements of Life: Carbon
(C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N),
Review Questions: Oxygen (O), Phosphorus (P), and
Sulfur (S), abbreviated as
1. What property of water allows CHNOPS.
a water strider to “walk” on
water? ● Carbon is critical because it can
form large, complex, and diverse
○ Answer: Surface tension, molecules that are essential for
which is related to the life.
cohesion of water
molecules, allows water Carbon’s Importance:
striders to walk on water by
preventing the surface from 1. Tetravalence: Carbon has 4
breaking easily. valence electrons, which means it
can form 4 bonds with other
2. Contrast adhesion and atoms.
cohesion. Give an example of
each. 2. Covalent Bonds: Carbon can
form single, double, or triple
○ Cohesion: The attraction covalent bonds, often with
between like molecules hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
(e.g., water molecules
sticking together). 3. Molecular Variety: Carbon can
form large molecules with various
○ Adhesion: The attraction shapes: chains, rings, or branched
between unlike molecules molecules.
(e.g., water sticking to the
walls of plant xylem). 4. Macromolecules: The four
classes of biological
3. Contrast hydrophobic and macromolecules—carbohydrates,
hydrophilic substances. Give proteins, lipids, and nucleic
an example of each. acids—are all carbon-based.

○ Hydrophilic: Substances 5. Isomers: Carbon compounds can

that are attracted to water exist in different forms called
and dissolve easily in it isomers. These have the same
(e.g., salt, sugar). molecular formula but differ in the
arrangement of atoms, leading to
○ Hydrophobic: Substances different properties and functions.
that repel water and do not
dissolve (e.g., oil, wax). Types of Isomers:

● Structural Isomers: Differ in the

covalent arrangement of atoms.
Carbon and Life
● Cis-Trans Isomers: Have the
Key Concepts to Know: same covalent bonds but differ in
spatial arrangements.
 ● Enantiomers: Mirror-image
isomers that are important in
pharmacology. For example, Macromolecules Overview
Ibuprofen and Albuterol are
drugs with enantiomers that have ● Categories: Carbohydrates,
different effects—one form may be Proteins, Nucleic Acids, and Lipids.
more effective than the other. ● Monomers and Polymers: Small
Functional (Chemical) Groups molecules (monomers) bond
through dehydration synthesis to
● Functional Groups: Specific form larger molecules (polymers).
groups of atoms within molecules Polymers break down into
that determine the characteristic monomers via hydrolysis.
chemical reactions of those
molecules. Carbohydrates

● Common Functional Groups: ● Function: Energy storage and

structural components.
1. Hydroxyl Group (-OH):
Polar, makes compound ● Composition: Carbon, Hydrogen,
alcohols. Oxygen (1:2:1 ratio).

2. Carbonyl Group (C=O): ● Monomers: Monosaccharides

Found in sugars; forms (e.g., glucose).
ketones or aldehydes. ● Polymers:
3. Carboxyl Group ○ Storage: Starch in plants,
(-COOH): Acts as an acid, glycogen in animals.
found in amino acids and
fatty acids. ○ Structure: Cellulose in
plants, chitin in arthropods.
4. Amino Group (-NH₂): Acts
as a base, found in amino ● Example: Starch is made of
acids. α-glucose monomers, while
cellulose consists of β-glucose
5. Sulfhydryl Group (-SH): monomers.
Important in protein
structure. Proteins
6. Phosphate Group ● Function: Enzymatic activity,
(-PO₄³⁻): Contributes defense, storage, transport,
negative charge, important movement, structure, and more.
in energy transfer (ATP).
● Composition: Carbon, Hydrogen,
7. Methyl Group (-CH₃): Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulfur.
Affects the expression of
genes. ● Monomer: Amino acids (20
types).
Important Historical Contributions:
● Structure:
● Friedrich Wöhler: Synthesized an
organic compound (urea) in the 1. Primary: Amino acid
laboratory, challenging the belief sequence.
that organic compounds could only
2. Secondary: Folding into
be produced by living organisms.
α-helices and β-sheets via
● Stanley Miller’s Experiment: hydrogen bonds.
Demonstrated how organic
3. Tertiary: 3D folding due to
molecules could form under early
interactions between side
Earth conditions, supporting
chains (hydrophobic, ionic,
theories of how life may have
hydrogen bonds, and
originated.
disulfide bridges).
 4. Quaternary: Two or more ● Dehydration Synthesis: This
polypeptides bond together. reaction involves the removal of a
water molecule to form a bond
● Protein Folding: Assisted by between two monomers, creating
chaperonins, and affected by a polymer.
temperature and pH changes.
● Hydrolysis: This reaction adds a
Nucleic Acids water molecule to break a bond in
● Function: Store and transmit a polymer, resulting in the
hereditary information. formation of monomers.

● Monomer: Nucleotide (composed 2. What are the building blocks of

of a sugar, phosphate group, and proteins, nucleic acids,
nitrogenous base). carbohydrates, and lipids?

● Types: ● Proteins: Amino acids.

○ DNA: Double-stranded, ● Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides

containing adenine (A), (composed of a sugar, phosphate
guanine (G), cytosine (C), group, and nitrogenous base).
and thymine (T). ● Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
○ RNA: Single-stranded, with (e.g., glucose).
uracil (U) instead of ● Lipids: Typically composed of
thymine. Types include glycerol and fatty acids (in
mRNA, tRNA, rRNA. triglycerides) or other hydrophobic
● Information Flow: DNA → RNA structures such as phospholipids
→ Protein. and steroids.

Lipids 3. What structural level of a protein

is affected by changes in heat or pH?
● Function: Long-term energy
storage, insulation, and structural ● The tertiary and quaternary
components of cell membranes. structures of a protein are most
affected by changes in heat or pH.
● Types: These changes can denature the
protein by disrupting hydrogen
○ Fats (Triglycerides): bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide
Glycerol + three fatty acids. bridges, and hydrophobic
Can be saturated or interactions that stabilize the
unsaturated. protein's structure. Denaturation
can lead to loss of function.
○ Phospholipids: Comprise
the cell membrane, with
hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails. Introduction to Reproduction
○ Steroids: Cholesterol and ● Definition: A biological process
hormones. by which offspring are produced
from one or two parents.
Important Reactions
● Types:
● Dehydration Synthesis: Forms
bonds by removing water. ○ Sexual Reproduction:
Involves the fusion of male
● Hydrolysis: Breaks bonds by
and female gametes,
adding water.
leading to genetic variability.
Quiz Practice
○ Asexual Reproduction:
1. How do dehydration synthesis and Does not involve gametes.
hydrolysis differ? The offspring are genetically
identical to the parent.
Asexual Reproduction in Organisms ○ Spermatogenesis: The
formation of sperm cells in
● Types of Asexual the testes, producing about
Reproduction: 1.5 million sperm per
1. Binary Fission: The minute.
organism splits into two, ○ Oogenesis: The formation
seen in single-celled of ova in the ovaries,
organisms like Escherichia starting in fetal life.
coli.
2. Fertilization:
2. Budding: A new organism
grows out of the body of ○ Fusion of a sperm cell and
the parent, as in an egg cell to form a
Saccharomyces cerevisiae. zygote.

3. Fragmentation: The 3. Cleavage:

organism breaks into pieces,
each of which grows into a ○ Rapid mitotic divisions
new individual, as in without an increase in
Planaria. embryo size, producing
blastomeres.
4. Vegetative
Reproduction: New plants 4. Gastrulation:
grow from parts like stems ○ Formation of three germ
or leaves (e.g., Kalanchoe). layers: ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm.
5. Sporulation: Organisms
form spores within a ■ Ectoderm: Becomes
resistant capsule, as in the skin and nervous
Rhizopus (bread mold). system.
Sexual Reproduction ■ Mesoderm:
Becomes muscles
● Gamete Fusion:
and the circulatory
○ Isogamy: Gametes are system.
similar in size and shape, as
■ Endoderm: Forms
seen in organisms like
the gut lining and
Spirogyra.
internal organs.
○ Heterogamy: Gametes
5. Organogenesis:
differ in size and shape,
typical in humans. ○ Development of organs
from the three germ layers.
● Special Terms:
6. Growth:
○ Dioecious: Organisms have
only one type of ○ Increase in size and
reproductive organ (e.g., maturation of the organism.
humans, papaya).
Plant Reproduction and
○ Hermaphroditism: One Development
organism has both male and
female organs (e.g., Angiosperm Reproduction
barnacles, worms).
● Key Features:
Animal Reproduction and
1. Flowers: The reproductive
Development
structures.
Stages of Animal Development:
2. Double Fertilization: One
1. Gametogenesis: sperm fertilizes the egg,
forming a zygote, while
 another sperm combines ● Key Characteristics:
with polar nuclei to form the
endosperm. ○ Cell walls

3. Fruits: Develop from the ○ Autotrophs (perform

ovary, containing seeds. photosynthesis)

The Flower: ○ Multicellular

● Sepals: Protect the bud. ○ Angiosperms (flowering

plants): Represent ~90% of
● Petals: Often brightly colored to plants, produce seeds within
attract pollinators. a fruit, and have key
adaptations like flowers and
● Stamens: Male reproductive fruits.
parts.
Plant Organization
● Carpels: Female reproductive
parts. ● Organs:

Pollination: ○ Roots: Absorb water and

nutrients, anchor the plant,
● Transfer of pollen from anther to store sugars/starches.
stigma by biotic or abiotic means
(e.g., wind, insects). ○ Stems: Support and display
leaves, transport materials.
Fruit and Seed Development:
○ Leaves: Main site of
● Types of Fruits: photosynthesis.
1. Simple Fruit: Develops ● Tissues:
from a single carpel (e.g.,
pea). ○ Dermal: Protects against
water loss and pathogens.
2. Aggregate Fruit: Develops
from multiple carpels of one ○ Vascular: Transports water,
flower (e.g., raspberry). nutrients, and sugars
(includes xylem and
3. Multiple Fruit: Forms from phloem).
multiple flowers (e.g.,
pineapple). ○ Ground: Functions in
storage, photosynthesis,
4. Accessory Fruit: Includes and support.
tissues other than the ovary
(e.g., apple). ● Cell Types:

Seed Germination: ○ Xylem: Conducts water and

minerals.
● The seed absorbs water and
begins to grow, producing a root, ○ Phloem: Transports sugars.
shoot, and leaves for
photosynthesis. ○ Parenchyma: Performs
photosynthesis, storage,
and wound repair.
PLANTS AND ANIMALS: ○ Collenchyma: Provides
REPRODUCTION AND flexible support to growing
DEVELOPMENT parts.
full view ○ Sclerenchyma: Offers rigid
support with thick, lignified
walls.
Introduction to Plants Plant Organs in Detail
● Kingdom: Plantae A. Roots
 ● Function: Anchor the plant, ○ Mesophyll: Ground tissue
absorb water and minerals, store rich in chloroplasts for
nutrients. photosynthesis.

● Types: ● Leaf Modifications:

○ Fibrous Roots: Thin roots ○ Tendrils: For climbing and

spread just below the support (e.g., peas).
surface (e.g., grass).
○ Spines: Protection (e.g.,
○ Taproots: One main cacti).
vertical root with lateral
branches (e.g., carrots). ○ Storage Leaves: Store
water and nutrients (e.g.,
● Root Modifications: succulents).

○ Storage Roots: Store Plant Tissues

nutrients (e.g., sweet
potatoes). A. Dermal Tissue

○ Prop Roots: Provide ● A protective outer layer that

additional support (e.g., prevents water loss and invasion
corn). by pathogens.

B. Stems ● Cuticle: A waxy coating on leaves

and stems that reduces water loss.
● Function: Support and elevate
leaves, transport materials. ● Trichomes: Specialized epidermal
cells that reduce water loss, reflect
● Features: light, and protect against insects.

○ Terminal Bud: Controls B. Vascular Tissue

upward growth.
● Xylem: Conducts water and
○ Axillary Buds: Can dissolved minerals from roots to
develop into branches. shoots.

● Stem Modifications: ● Phloem: Transports sugars from

leaves to other parts of the plant.
○ Runners/Stolons: Grow
along the ground for ● Stele: Collective term for the
asexual reproduction (e.g., vascular tissues in roots, stems,
strawberries). and leaves.

○ Rhizomes: Underground C. Ground Tissue

stems for storage (e.g.,
ginger). ● Provides support and functions in
storage and photosynthesis.
○ Bulbs: Underground
storage stems with fleshy ○ Pith: Ground tissue inside
leaves (e.g., onions). the vascular tissue.

C. Leaves ○ Cortex: Ground tissue

outside the vascular tissue.
● Function: Main photosynthetic
organ. Plant Cell Types

● Structure: ● Parenchyma: Thin-walled cells

that perform most of the plant's
○ Epidermis: Outer layer metabolic functions (e.g.,
with stomata for gas photosynthesis, storage).
exchange.
● Collenchyma: Provides flexible
support to growing parts of the
plant.
 ● Sclerenchyma: Contains lignin ○ Zone of Elongation: Cells
for rigid support, includes fibers elongate, pushing the root
used for making materials like further into the soil.
ropes.
○ Zone of Differentiation:
● Xylem Cells: Dead, tubular cells Cells mature into different
that transport water and minerals. types.

● Phloem Cells: Living cells that ● Shoots:

transport sugar, composed of sieve
tubes and companion cells. ○ Shoot elongation occurs
from internode cells just
Plant Growth below the apical bud.

● Types of Flowering Plants: ○ Apical Dominance: The

apical bud suppresses the
○ Annuals: Complete their growth of axillary buds to
life cycle in one year (e.g., focus growth upwards.
wheat).
Secondary Growth (Thickening)
○ Biennials: Take two years
to complete their life cycle ● Found in woody plants, secondary
(e.g., carrots). growth increases the thickness of
stems and roots.
○ Perennials: Live for many
years (e.g., trees). ● Vascular Cambium: Produces
new layers of xylem and phloem.
● Growth Types:
● Cork Cambium: Forms the outer
○ Indeterminate Growth: protective layer (bark).
Plants grow continuously in
height and width. Key Terms and Concepts

○ Determinate Growth: 1. Xylem: Transports water.

Organs like leaves and
flowers stop growing after 2. Phloem: Transports sugar.
reaching a certain size. 3. Meristem: Region of active cell
● Meristems: division.

○ Apical Meristems: 4. Primary Growth: Lengthening of

Located at the tips of roots roots and shoots.
and shoots; responsible for 5. Secondary Growth: Thickening
primary growth (increased of roots and stems.
length).

○ Lateral Meristems:
Contribute to secondary
growth (increased
thickness). Nutrition and Transport in Vascular
Plants
Primary and Secondary Growth
Plant Nutrition
Primary Growth (Lengthening)
● Adaptations for Acquiring
● Roots:
Resources:
○ Root Cap: Protects the ○ Shoots: Capture light
apical meristem as roots efficiently.
push through the soil.
○ Roots: Acquire water and
○ Zone of Cell Division:
minerals.
New cells are produced.
● Nutritional Requirements:
 ○ Essential Elements: ○ Xylem: Nonliving tissue
Required for plant growth that transports water and
and reproduction. minerals from roots to
shoots.
○ Macronutrients: Needed
in large amounts (CHNOPS ○ Phloem: Living tissue that
+ K, Ca, Mg). Nitrogen is transports sugars, minerals,
particularly important. amino acids, and hormones
from sources (where sugar
○ Micronutrients: Needed in is produced) to sinks (where
small amounts (Fe, Mn, Zn, sugar is used or stored).
Cu, etc.).
● Transport Pathways:
● Mutualistic Relationships:
○ Apoplast: Movement of
○ Rhizobium Bacteria: Fix substances through cell
atmospheric nitrogen into a walls and extracellular
usable form for plants. spaces.
○ Mycorrhizae: A symbiotic ○ Symplast: Movement of
relationship between plants substances through the
and fungi, where the fungus cytoplasm and
expands the root surface plasmodesmata
area, increasing water and (connections between cells).
mineral absorption.
● Transport of Water:
● Role of Soil Bacteria in
Nitrogen Nutrition: ○ Osmosis: Movement of
water from areas of high
○ Soil bacteria play a crucial water potential (Ψ) to low
role in converting nitrogen Ψ, driven by differences in
from the atmosphere into solute concentration and
forms usable by plants. pressure.
● Plant Roots: ○ Turgor Pressure: The
○ Root Hairs: Increase the force exerted by water
surface area for absorption within a cell against the cell
at root tips. wall.

○ Mycorrhizae: Enhance ○ Bulk Flow: Movement of

water and mineral uptake. water in the plant from
areas of high pressure to
● Unusual Nutritional low pressure, independent
Adaptations: of solute concentration.

○ Epiphytes: Grow on the ○ Cell Water Potential: The

surface of other plants and water potential of a cell
absorb water from rain. determines whether water
will move into or out of the
○ Parasitic Plants: Obtain cell.
sugar and minerals from
living hosts. ● Mechanisms of Water
Transport:
○ Carnivorous Plants:
Photosynthetic but obtain ○ Selectively Permeable
nitrogen and minerals by Membranes: Control the
digesting small animals, movement of substances
often found in nitrogen-poor into and out of cells.
soil.
○ Proton Pumps: Use
Transport Processes energy to pump hydrogen
ions (H+) out of cells,
● Vascular Tissues: creating a proton gradient
 that drives the transport of ● Sieve-Tube Elements: The
other substances. specialized cells in the phloem that
transport sugars.
○ Cotransport: Coupling the
diffusion of hydrogen ions ● Active Transport: Requires
with the transport of other energy to move sucrose across cell
substances. membranes.

○ Aquaporins: Channel Material Movement via Symplast

proteins that facilitate the
movement of water across ● Plasmodesmata: Connections
cell membranes. between cells that allow the
movement of RNA and proteins.
● Casparian Strip: A band of
waterproof material in the ● Phloem Function: Rapid,
endodermis of roots that controls long-distance electrical signaling,
the movement of water and similar to nerve-like function.
minerals into the vascular cylinder, ● Importance: Enables swift
preventing the direct influx of salts communication and changes in
and pathogens. gene expression, respiration, and
● Transpiration: The loss of water photosynthesis.
vapor from leaves through
stomata, creating a negative
pressure in the xylem.

● Cohesion-Tension Hypothesis:
Explains how water is pulled up
the xylem against gravity, driven
by transpiration, cohesion of water
molecules, and adhesion of water
to xylem walls.

● Stomata: Pores in the epidermis

of leaves that regulate gas
exchange and transpiration.

○ Guard Cells: Open and close

stomata by changing shape,
controlled by potassium ion
uptake and loss.

○ Factors Influencing Stomata

Opening and Closing: Light,
CO2 levels, circadian
rhythms, drought, high
temperature, and wind.

Transport of Sugar

● Translocation: The movement of

sugars from sources to sinks in the
phloem, driven by pressure flow.

● Sources: Leaves, where sugar is

produced through photosynthesis.

● Sinks: Fruits, roots, and other

areas where sugar is used or
stored.