Retaining Wall
Introduction: Very often an architect requires to maintain a level difference, a gradient or an
altered ground profile which is not a natural profile of strata on the site. Its takes additional
structural efforts to maintain a desired profile of any retained material. Any material, when
stacked on the ground assumes a certain profile at rest under gravitational forces. This profile is
dependent on the nature of the material. Water would have a horizontal profile, while a pile of
boulders would make a triangular profile. Thus it is observed that coarser are the granules of the
material, more will be the angle with the horizontal ground. This angle is called the ‘angle of
repose’. Angle of repose for different soils range from 45º to near 0º for wet clay. However for
most of the soil types on an average angle of 30º is usually taken.
Fine grained soil Angle of Repose Clay strata
Angle of repose
Rocks- 35º to 40º
Clayey soil- 30º- 35º
Retaining wall: The basic function of a retaining wall is to retain soil at a slope, which is
greater than its angle of repose, usually at a vertical or near vertical position. The wedge of the
soil above the angle of repose is supported by retaining wall.
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The wedge of the soil retained by the retaining wall would exert a lateral pressure on the wall
which needs to be transmitted to the earth strata without;
1.) Failure of the wall fabric (cracking or shearing) due to overstressing of wall fabric.
2.) Sliding of wall.
3.) Overturning of wall.
Thus the design of retaining wall is mainly in consideration of two forms of earth pressures.
1) Active earth pressure.
2) Passive earth pressure.
Active Earth Pressure: Active earth pressures are those which at all the times are tending to
move or overturn the retaining wall. Active earth pressure is due to the active wedge along with
any hydrostatic pressure caused due to the presence of ground water. The hydrostatic pressure is
a variable component of lateral loading on the retaining wall but can be reduced by installing
subsoil drainage behind the wall and/or inserting drainage opening called ‘weep holes’ through
the thickness of the stem enabling the water to drain away.
Passive Earth Pressure: Passive earth pressures are reactionary pressures which tend to resist
the movement of the wall. If the wall tends to move forward, the earth in front of the toe will be
compressed and a reaction in the form of passive pressure will built up in the front of the toe to
resist the forward movement. This pressure can be enhanced by increasing the depth of the toe of
by forming a rib on the underside of the base.
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Various Pressures on Retaining Wall
Design of the retaining wall depends on the following aspects;
1) Function Expected in the overall design and the other related building elements.
2) Required height of wall
3) The nature of material to be retained
4) Surrounding geological features
5) Level of water table and degree of water saturation resulting in
a) Softening the soil to a liquid or semi-liquid state
b) Reduction of internal friction of the soil
c) Swelling of the soil
d) Building up of hydro-static pressure behind the wall
e) Lubrication of the friction surface under the foundation
f) Lubrication of possible slip-plane in cohesive soil.
g) Erosion of the soil under the foundation
h) Impact of waves in extremely water logged soil strata.
6) Additional Dead or live load on the wall such as;
a) Weight of the building resting on the retaining wall of the basement.
b) The load of the foundation of the adjacent building
c) Earth quake forces
d) Moving loads of construction machinery or vehicles.
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e) Surcharge loading on the retained soil.
Types of retaining walls: The ground profile can be stabilized in the desired profile by using;
1) Revetment or stone pitching for the strata to be stabilized at the angle of repose
2) Gravity wall to stabilize the strata beyond the angle of repose by the dead weight of the
wall. Generally used for shorter height of retained material.
3) Flexible wall designed as cantilever, or as a beam or a slab between fixed support.
Generally used to retain larger heights of retained material.
Revetment or stone pitching: The strata is at rest under gravitational force at near about its
angle of repose but there are other forces like wind, storm water run-off, vehicular or pedestrian
movement etc imposed loading, which tends to slide the strata and disturb the profile.
To hold the earth profile against the
forces of erosion stone pitching is a
good solution in which a veneer of
natural stone is secured over the earth
surface along the slope. The size of the
stone rivets used can be of varied size
but commonly around 300mm deep and
intermediately a row of anchor stone is
set deeper to hold the stone laid up the
slope. The stone are laid dry and Stone Pitching (revetment)
vegetation growth is encouraged in the
joints between the stones laid so that the
root system of the vegetation would
further stabilize the slope.
Weld mesh Gabion: Gabions are wire mesh baskets that are filled on site with stone or rock to
form gravity elements to be employed to retain lateral loads of retained earth. The design of
gabion walls is based on the mass of the wall resisting the imposed forces on the wall (Mass
Gravity Wall Design). The welded mesh acts as a containment system for the stone or rock infill
and although the mesh does have a reinforcing effect, this is not considered as contributing to the
stability of the structures as it would in a reinforced concrete structure. Gabions are placed on the
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ground without any foundation and it is not recommended to construct vertical faced walls as
gabions are a flexible structure and Horizontal movement can occur. Gabion walls are normally
inclined at minimum 6 degrees from the vertical. This inclination improves stability and
overcomes the potential of the wall visually looking as if it is leaning forward.
Weld mesh boxes to be filled
Weld mesh gabions to protect the slope
with stones on site
against erosion and land slide
Weld mesh boxes to be filled with stones on site
Gravity or mass retaining wall: Retaining wall of small heights and lighter load can be
constructed using stone masonry, brick masonry or mass concrete. The limitations on scale of
such gravity walls is its inherent limitation to counter lateral loading due to the planes of
weakness at the mortar joint and the extent to which wt of the wall can be increased. The load
diagram on the mass retaining wall explains conceptually the desirable equilibrium of loads.
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If the resultant passes through If the resultant falls outside the base then
the outer one third of the base there will be no frictional resistance
then there will be tension in the offered by the base and wall will be
inner side of the masonry joint. overturned about the outer edge of the
The wall may fail by shear wall base. The wall may have failure by
overturning.
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Retaining wall Terminology Active and Passive Pressure in Gravity Retaining Wall
Gravity retaining wall rely upon their own mass
together with the friction on the underside of the
base to overcome the tendency to slide or
overturn. They are generally only feasible up to a
height of 1.5 m or maximum 1.8m. They could be
constructed of brick, stone masonry or mass
concrete with natural stone facing. It should be
provided with weep holes and/or the subsoil drain
to relieve it off the hydrostatic pressure built-up
behind the wall. The application of mass retaining
wall is generally in the landscape design or small
kerbs.
Mass concrete retaining wall with stone facing.
Proportions of retaining wall: The proportions of the retaining
wall are expressed in terms of its height ‘H’ which is a decisive
parameter along with the magnitude of the load imposed on it.
Thumb rule proportions for mass/ Gravity retaining wall are as
shown in the figure.
Gravity Retaining Walls summary
As the name suggests these Retaining Walls are so called because it is the inertia of the wall or
the weight due to gravity of the wall that acts against all the forces acting on the wall i.e. the
effects of the forces due to the Retained Material.
1. These are economical up to a height of 1.8 meters.
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2. These are made of Brick, Stones or Concrete.
3. These walls are so proportioned that the dead weight of the wall provides stability against
the thrust exerted by the backfill including the surcharge.
4. It is very important to remember that no Tensile stresses should develop at any point or
the wall or in any section of the wall under any conditions as the materials that the walls
made have poor Tensile Resistance.
Cantilever Retaining wall: Flexible retaining wall, also called as cantilever retaining wall are
usually constructed of reinforced concrete and works on the principle of leverage. The stem is
designed as a cantilever slab with the fixed end at the foundation. These type of retaining walls
are suitable for the height of 8.M. The pressure diagram on the cantilever retaining wall is as
shown.
Since cantilever retaining wall do not
gets its stability from its weight, it has to
be designed by creating equilibrium
between active and passive earth
pressures. Depending on the position of
the stem on the foundation the
equilibrium is achieved as shown in the
Active and Passive Pressure on Cantilever figure below.
retaining wall
Stem is placed on the outer edge of Stem is placed on the inner edge of the
the foundation. foundation.
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Each of the three situations is necessary to
accommodate the site conditions. For each
individual situation the proportions of the
foundation required in relation to the height
of the stem will be different. The deflection
tendency in each situation is shown along
side. In all the three cases the stem tends to
bend forward due to lateral load of the
retained material. When the base projects
Stem is placed in the middle of the backward under the retained soil, the weight
foundation of the earth pressing down on the base will
give stability to the wall. When it is
impossible to project the base backwards the
base has to be wider to get enough passive
thrust from the soil below the foundation to
stabilize the wall. When the base is
projected on both the sides, both, the load of
the soil on the retained side and the passive
pressure of the soil underneath the front
base projection will together stabilize the
wall. General proportions are as shown.
Proportions of cantilever retaining wall.
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Cantilever retaining wall summary
A cantilever retaining wall consists of a vertical cantilevering slab called the Stem and a Base
slab. The Base slab consists of a Toe Slab (on the opposite side of the Back Fill) and a Heel Slab
which is under the retained Earth (on the same side of the Back Fill). These are used to retain
earth up to a height of 6 meters. For greater heights a counter fort retaining walls is constructed.
The proportions of the retaining wall are as follows.
1. Top Width of Stem = 200 – 250 mm
2. Bottom Width of Stem = Computed from Bending Moment Considerations.
3. Width of Base Slab = 0.5 to 0.6 times the height of the wall.
4. Toe Projection = 1/6th to 1/3rd of the Base Width
5. Thickness of the Base Slab = Same as Bottom Width of the Stem
though dimensions are assumed at the beginning they shall be checked for Stability and
also for other pressures acting on the wall.
Steps in Designing of Retraining Wall
1. A tentative cross section should be first assumed as per thumb rules given above.
2. For one meter run of the wall, the maximum Bending Moment at the bottom of the stem
is computed and the depth for the same is worked out from the equation
ܳ = ܯ. ݇ܿܨ. ܾ݀ ଶ
Cover to reinforcement is 50mm
3. Base slab thickness = Stem Bottom Depth Computed.
4. Study the stability of the structure similar to Gravity Retaining Walls with respect to
A. Overturning. B. Sliding. C. Maximum and Minimum Pressure At Base.
5. In case of lower F.O.S for sliding, a shear key may be provided at the toe below the base
or vertically below the stem below the base.
6. Reinforcement
a. Stem Reinforcement. The reinforcement is calculated from B.M considerations. It is
provided on the earth side. The reinforcement may be curtailed as we go up as the
stem is a vertical cantilever attached to the base. Distribution steel is generally
provided on both the faces of the stem. Area of distribution steel not to exceed
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0.15 % (for Fe 250) and 0.12% (for Fe 450). Cover 40mm – 50mm.
b. Toe Reinforcement. The toe slab is designed as a cantilever acted upon by upward
soil reaction. The depth provided is checked from B.M considerations. The Main steel
is provided for Max B.M and provided at the bottom. Cover 50mm – 60mm.
c. Heel Reinforcement. The heel slab is also designed as a cantilever acted upon by
upward pressure and also the weight of the soil on the heel, its own self weight, and
superimposed loads or loads due to surcharge. The Main steel is provided for Max
B.M and provided at the top. Cover 50mm – 60mm.
d. Shear Key Reinforcement. The requirement of reinforcement in the shear key is
very small and hence alternate bars from the base slab steel may be bent down and
used. If the shear key is provided at the base of the stem, and in this case alternate
bars from the stem reinforcement may be extended up to the shear key.
e. Shear Reinforcement. Generally no shear reinforcement is provided as the shear
resistance offered by concrete is sufficient to resist shear forces as the width of the
slab (both stem and base) is 1 m (as in slabs, not designed for shear.)
7. Expansion and Contraction Joints. Keyed expansion and contraction joints are provided
at 30 m intervals.
Cantilever Retaining Wall Without Heel Projection.
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Sometimes due to boundary restrictions, it may happen that the Wall cannot be provided with a
heel projection. In this case the dead load of the wall will have to be considerably high since no
assistance is available from the soil on the heel.
1. The thickness of the stem may be kept the same throughout and not tapered, to increase
the self weight.
2. Make the base slab thicker than the stem by about a 100mm
3. Instead of the width of the base slab being 0.6h, make it 0.7h
4. Shear key will have to be provided for prevention against sliding.
Cantilever Retaining Wall Without Toe Projection.
Sometimes due to boundary restrictions, it may happen that the Wall cannot be provided with a
toe projection. This type of wall may be designed as an ordinary Cantilever Retaining Wall
though the base slab may have to be made 100 mm thicker than the bottom width of the stem.
Counterfort Retaining wall: The greater the height of the cantilever wall, the greater is the
thickness of the stem and for wall higher than 8m the thickness becomes excessive. Wall above
6.0 mts height are generally designed as counterfort retaining wall. The counterforts are
triangular beams placed at suitable centre to centre distance behind the stem and above the base
to enable the stem and the base to act as slabs spanning horizontally over or under the
counterfort. If the counterfort are placed on the front face of the stem they are termed as
buttresses and the whole arrangement is called buttress retaining wall. The stem is designed as a
continuous slab with counterfort as supports with main steel running horizontally across the
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supports.
Counterfort retaining wall (Section through the stem slab)
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Counterfort retaining wall (Section through the counterfort)
1. Upright Slab. This is designed as a continuous slab spanning on the counterforts and
subjected to lateral earth pressure. The lateral pressure is max at bottom and depth calculated
for the slab at the bottom is maintained throughout. The main reinforcement unlike the
cantilever retaining wall runs horizontally being provided away from the earth side at
sections mid way between the counterforts and on the earth side at sections nearer the
counterforts. The slabs are also provided with distribution steel of 0.15% of cross sectional
area placed vertically on both the faces to form a mesh with the horizontal main bars.
2. The Base Slab. The width of the base slab is 0.6 – 0.7 times the height of the wall and it
comprises of the toe and the heel slab. The toe projection is 1/4th the total width of the base
slab.
The heel slab is designed as a continuous slab with the counterforts as the supports.
2. A. The toe slab is designed in two ways either as a cantilever or as a continuous slab when
front counterforts are provided. In the first case the toe slab is designed as a cantilever slab
subjected to upward soil reaction. But if front counterforts are provided the toe slab shall be
designed as a continuous slab with counterforts as supports.
3. Counterforts - These are spaced at 3 to 3.5 m centre to centre. Or they can be spaced at h/3
to h/2 where h is the height of the wall. The counterforts are designed as vertical cantilevers
held in position by the base slab. The loading on these counterforts is due to the lateral earth
pressure acting on the upright slab.
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Failure of retaining wall: The retaining wall can fail when the resultant thrust do not fall in the
middle onethird of the base or the equilibrium between the active earth pressure and the passive
earth resistance is disturbed due to increase in active pressure or decrese in the passive resistance
of the soil. Increse in the active pressure may happen due to increase in the hydrostatic pressure
or superimposed load in form of new buiding or earth surcharge. Decrease in the passive
resistance can happen due to excessive liqufication of soil especially in cohesive soil strata. The
failures can be of the following typers.
1. Shearing of the wall especially gravity walls when the tension in the masonry joints are
developed when the resultant trust falls on the outer one third of the base.
2. Overturning due to the resultant trust falling outside the base and/or failure of soil at the
toe.
3. Failure by sliding forward due to reduction of frictional resistance under the base of the
retaining wall.
4. Failure by sliping along the slip plane especially in the cohesive soil. Slip circle failure
happens to the retaining wall in clay soil particularly with heavy surcharge. It takes the
form of rotational movement of soil and wall along a circular arc which starts behind the
wall and passes under the base resulting in tilting and forward movement of the wall.
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Failure by forward sliding Failure by overturning
Failure due to slip plane failure
( cohesive soil only)
Pre-cast Concrete retaining wall: Retaining wall can be precast in concrete to be installed as a
cantilever retaining wall. The modules are monolithically cast as the stem and the base and a
provision is made for fixing the modules on the mass concrete PCC base by means of a key and
holding down bolts. Provision to connect one module to the next is made by apertures left at the
edge of the stem. The units are reinforced on both the faces to meet all types of load along with
the handling loads. Special units are cast to form internal and external angle to take care of the
off set in the plan profile.
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Pre-cast RCC retaining wall
WEEP HOLES AND EFFECT OF SURCHARGE
Explain the drainage arrangements in Retaining Walls. Explain why they are
necessary.
Or What are Weep holes and why are they necessary?
Backfill which is saturated with water exerts higher lateral pressure on the retaining wall. Thus
the wall needs to be designed for this higher lateral pressure. When the soil is not submerged, the
Retaining wall is normally designed for earth pressure only and consideration for increased earth
pressure due to seepage of water into this earth or due to rising water table is not taken into
account. Hence regardless of the backfill material, the reduction or elimination of hydrostatic
pressure by draining out the water from the back fill by use of Weep Holes needs attention.
Different ways of draining water from the back fill are as given below and their use depends on
the type of soil, rainfall in the area, etc.
1. Provide series of Weep Holes of diameter 100 mm or more in the bottom region of the
wall at 1.2 m or 2.0 m apart, vertically and horizontally. Weep holes should always have
some kind of filter material between the wall and the backfill to prevent fines migration,
weep hole clogging, and loss of backfill and caving.
2. A more effective method is to provide an impervious blanket like plain concrete along the
length of the wall. The water from the blanket may be collected either by clay pipes or
perforated metal pipes. This water may be discharged at desired points or through weep
holes at isolated points.
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Write a short note on Effects of Surcharge On Retaining Walls.
The soil retained by a Retaining Wall can be in horizontal with the top of the Retaining Wall or it
can be retained in such a way that it makes an angle with the horizontal. This extra material to be
retained is called Surcharge.
The base width for such a surcharged wall is taken as 0.7 H where H= Total height of the wall.
Toe projection may be taken as 1/3rd of base width.
The surcharged load also could be due to parking area provided on the horizontal portion of the
backfill. This parking load would increase the horizontal pressure on the wall and the Wall
design will have to include provision for the same.
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